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m&  ID-LRß 


EDUCATIONAL      METHODS 

College  Study  and  College  Life.  By 
Bernard  C.  Eiuer. 

American  Education.  By  Sidney  G. 
Fisher. 

The  Philosophical  Basis  of  Educa- 
tion.    By  Rolland  Merritt  Shreves. 

The  Privilege  of  Education.  By 
George  L.  Jackson. 

The  Rural  School  and  the  Commu- 
nity.    By  Howard  T.  Leiuis. 

SOxME  Fundamental  Verities  in  Edu- 
cation. By  Maximilian  P.  E.  Grosz- 
mann. 

The  School  System  of  Norway.  B\ 
David  Allen  Anderson. 

Education  Among  the  Jews.  By  Paul 
E.  Kretzmann. 

Public  Education  in  Germany  and  in 
the  United  States.     By  L.  R.  Klemm. 

Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher. 
By  William  Jerusalem.  Translated  by 
Charles  F.  Sanders. 


RICHARD    G.    badger,    PUBLISHER,    BOSTON 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE 
SECONDARY  TEACHER 


By 

WILLIAM  JERUSALEM,  Ph.D. 

Projessor  of  Education,  University  of  Vienna 


Authorized  Translation  by 

CHARLES  F.  SANDERS 

Professor  of  Philosophy  and  Education, 
Pennsylvania  College,  Gettysburg,  Pa. 


BOSTON 
RICHARD  G.  BADGER 

THE  GORHAM  PRESS 


-55-^5"   V 


COPYEIGHT,  1918,  BY  RlCHARD  G.  BaDGER 


All  Rights  Reserved 


Made  in  the  United  States  of  America 


The  Gorham  Press,  Boston,  U.S.A. 


TH 


PREFACE 

The  problems  of  education  take  their  character  from  the  na- 
ture of  man.  The  ideals  of  civilization,  the  social  results  of 
the  achievements  in  any  age,  the  impulse  towards  adventure 
and  the  undertaking  of  advance  or  reform,  all  issue  somehow 
out  of  the  nature  of  man.  And  in  its  fundamental  aspects 
this  nature  is  very  much  the  same  the  world  over.  When  we 
note  the  differences  of  peoples  and  nations  we  find  that  we  are 
dwelling  on  things  they  "  have  put  on  for  the  occasion."  We 
are  not  yet  at  the  bottom.  Much  of  our  philosophy,  religion 
and  education  has  been  satisfied  to  build  without  going  to  this 
real  foundation,  the  bedrock  of  human  nature. 

The  market  is  flooded  with  pedagogic  literature.  It  seems 
well-nigh  a  fad.  There  seems  to  be  good  sense  in  the  de- 
mand that  one  should  have  some  good  reason  for  offering  a 
new  book  in  this  field.  My  reason  for  offering  this  book  in 
English  dress  is  its  splendid  success  in  the  effort  to  furnish 
insight  into  the  rich  problems  of  the  Secondary  School  from 
the  profound  viewpoint  of  the  fundamentals  of  human  nature 
and  of  human  society. 

Jerusalem  has  cultivated  the  fields  of  philosophy,  psychol- 
ogy and  sociology  and  it  is  these  that  are  peculiarly  essential 
to  an  undertaking  of  the  problems  of  pedagogy.  He  has 
learned  much  from  Spencer  in  sociology,  from  Royce  in  philos- 
ophy and  from  James  in  psycholog}^  In  the  treatment  of  his 
problems  he  has  dealt  with  an  earnest  frankness  with  every- 
thing, with  the  result  that  we  have  a  book  that  must  appeal 
to  everyone  who  really  cares  for  the  advancement  of  the  race 
and  has  anything  like  confidence  that  the  school  can  be  made 
an  effective  agent  in  effecting  such  advance. 

In  making  the  translation  we  have  eliminated  such  portions 
of  the  book  as  would  have  little  or  no  interest  outside  Aus- 
tria. The  translation  is  made  from  the  second  edition  of  the 
orignal.  The  following  from  the  author's  Preface  will  tell 
the  story  of  the  book: 

5 


6  Preface 

In  respect  to  subject  matter  my  book  bears  an  intimate  re- 
lation to  the  Practical  Pedagogics  of  Adolf  Matthias  and 
the  Spirit  of  the  Teacher  of  William  Muench.  Both  men 
are  in  position  to  speak  to  teachers  as  from  a  higher  platform 
and  hence  have  a  right  to  admonish,  to  suggest,  and  to  im- 
pose a  duty.  They  understand  well  how  to  take  the  view- 
point of  the  teacher,  but  they  themselves  are  nevertheless  no 
longer  on  that  level.  In  this  respect  my  position  is  entirely 
different.  I  have  never  been  a  Director  nor  an  Inspector. 
Furthermore,  during  the  twenty  years  of  my  professional  life  I 
have  never  risen  beyond  the  position  of  Privatdozent.  I, 
therefore,  have  neither  the  right  nor  the  obligation,  and  least 
of  all  the  inclination,  to  speak  from  above.  I  come  as  a 
teacher  to  address  myself  to  my  present  and  future  colleagues 
with  a  view  to  impressing  upon  them  the  tremendous  social 
significance  of  our  school  and  of  our  profession.  My  most 
serious  concern  is  to  energize  the  teacher  subjectively,  to  give 
new  impulses  to  his  ambition  and  in  this  way,  which  I  regard 
the  only  possible  and  effective  one,  to  contribute  to  the  reform 
of  our  advanced  school  system  for  which  there  is  such  a  cry- 
ing need.  But  the  first  requirement  to  this  end  is  the  demand 
for  uncompromising  frankness.  We  must  neither  cover  up 
nor  apologize  for  the  failures  and  weaknesses  of  which  we 
teachers  are  so  frequently  guilty.  I  have  touched  upon  a 
number  of  very  tender  spots  and  am  prepared  to  expect  that 
the  painful  touch  will  meet  with  some  bitter  resentment  and 
some  complaisant  denial.  I  have  spoken  without  equivoca- 
tion on  both  the  actual  short-comings  of  our  High  School  or- 
ganization as  well  as  the  failures  of  our  Boards  of  Instruc- 
tion. And  I  have  likewise  spoken  many  plain  truths  to  the 
parents  of  our  pupils.  But  I  have  done  all  this  solely  from 
my  interest  in  the  great  social  service  to  which  my  book  is  de- 
voted. My  criticism  is  never  merely  negative.  I  have  no 
desire  to  destroy,  but  rather  to  build  anew  from  within.  I 
have  constantly  directed  my  efforts  towards  the  positive  and 
the  concrete.  It  is  just  in  the  very  act  of  trying  to  give  the 
vital  energies  of  the  teaching  profession  the  direction  which 
leads  towards  higher  achievements  that  the  errors  which  lead 
elsewhere  are  exposed  automatically.  As  Spinoza  has  put  it, 
the  truth  must  illuminate  both  itself  and  error. 

The   sociological   method    of    interpretation    which    I    have 


Preface  7 

applied  to  our  schools  and  their  teachers  may  indeed  appear 
new  and  unfamiliar  to  many  of  my  colleagues.  Sociology  is 
still  a  new  science  and  it  is  not  yet  in  position  to  direct  atten- 
tion to  an  abundance  of  positive  results.  But  as  a  method  of 
interpretation  it  has  justified  itself  in  splendid  fashion.  In 
the  investigation  of  the  concept  of  general  education  it  has  been 
very  fruitful.  The  ethical  problems  of  the  teacher  are  like- 
wise brought  into  a  new  light  by  consideration  from  this  point 
of  view.  We  must  constantly  strive  for  a  clearer  conception 
of  the  social  function  of  our  high  schools.  It  is  only  from 
this  point  of  view  that  we  can  at  present  come  to  a  correct 
understanding  and  evaluation  of  the  insistent  demands  for 
far-reaching  individualization  and  for  the  intensive  develop- 
ment of  personality.  It  is  on  this  account  that  my  book  ap- 
plies not  only  to  specialists  in  the  narrower  sense.  It  is  pre- 
cisely among  these  that  many  of  my  suggestions  will  still  meet 
with  opposition,  especially,  for  example,  my  effort  at  the  re- 
organization of  the  curriculum  and  my  requirements  in  refer- 
ence to  the  pedagogical  training  of  teachers.  But  if  educated 
society  will  concern  itself  more  than  it  has  hitherto  about  the 
social  problem  of  the  secondary  school  with  a  view  to  attain- 
ing a  clear  understanding  both  of  its  importance  and  its  unique 
position,  many  will  certainly  learn  to  see  that  the  existing 
evils  can  never  be  overcome  by  means  of  superficial  reforms, 
such  for  example  as  by  a  more  strict  supervision,  or  by  a 
gradual  reduction  of  the  material  of  instruction,  or  by  eliminat- 
ing written  exercises,  or  by  the  free  elective  sj^stem  in  the 
advanced  classes.  The  state  and  society  will  then  perhaps^ 
think  through  to  the  conviction  that  the  clearly  recognised( 
aim  or  purpose  of  the  secondary  school  can  be  attained  only\ 
by  means  of  a  thoroughgoing  internal  reconstruction.  Internal  ( 
reconstruction,  however,  is  possible  only  if  the  vital  energies 
of  the  teachers  and  schools  are  aroused,  disciplined,  and  di- 
rected upon  the  course  which  brings  us  closer  to  these  aims. 
I  may  perhaps,  therefore,  be  permitted  to  hope  that  I  will 
find  sympathizers  among  the  large  class  of  the  educated  in 
every  calling,  who  will  agree  to  an  early  introduction  of  my 
requirements  and  a  much  more  thorough  pedagogic  prepara- 
tion of  teachers.  The  future  generation  of  teachers,  however, 
will  soon  likewise  gratefully  recognise  the  advantages  of  such 
a  training  themselves. 


8  Preface 

Finally,  permit  me  to  emphasize  once  more  that  this  essay 
is  a  personal  work,  an  expression  that  issues  from  the  depth  of 
my  own  heart.  It  is  as  such  that  I  send  it  forth  into  the  world 
with  the  epigrammatic  blessing  of  Grillparzer's  lines: 

Wer  viel  verschenken  will,  ob  Fuerst  auch  oder  Koenig, 
Mehr  als  sich  selbst  gab  keiner  noch,  der  war. 
Hier  nimm  mich  selbst,  und  selber  bring  ichs  dar. 
Dein  Herz  entscheide  nun,  obs  viel  ist  oder  wenig. 

(Of  all  who  have  rich  blessings  shed,  whether  prince  or  king, 
None   that   ever   lived   more  than  himself  has  given. 
Here,  take  my  very  self,  'tis  I  who  offer  thee. 
Then  let  your  own  heart  decide,  whether  it  be  much  or  little.) 

C.  F.  Sanders. 
Gettj^sburg,  Pa., 
July  27,  igi8. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I    The  Secondary  Teacher 7 

1  Our  Vocation 7 

2  The  Synthesis  of  Science  and  Pedagogy 10 

3  Synthesis  of  Officer  and  Teacher 17 

II    The  Character  and  the  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School    27 

1  The  General  Character  of  the  Secondary  School     ...     27 

2  The  Conception  of  General  Education 28 

A  General  Education  in  the  Sociological  Sense  ...  30 

B   The  Encyclopedic  Theory 35 

C  The  Biologico-Psychological  Theory  of  General  Ed- 
ucation          41 

3  The  Theory  of  General  Education 59 

4.  The  Aim  of  the  Secondary  School 77 

5  The  Course  of  Study  in  the  Secondary  School  ....  83 

III  The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary  Teachers     .     .     91 

1  The  General  Problem 91 

2  The    Special    Groups loi 

A  Philology loi 

B  Mathematics   and  the   Natural   Sciences      .      .      .      .118 

IV  Didactics 122 

1  General  Principles  of  Method 122 

2  Awakening  Interest  as  a  Principle  of  Instruction     .      .      .  126 

3  Interest  as  a  Pedagogic  Principle.     Its  Practical   Signifi- 

cance and  Application 131 

4  The  Principle  of  Training  to  Work 140 

5  The  Authority  of  the  Teacher 144 

V    Ethical  and  Social  Problems 161 

X  The  Ethical  Factor  in  the  Secondary  School 161 

2  Personal    Duty   and    Personal   Dignity 165 

3  The   Social   Spirit  in   School 177 

4  The   Cultivation'  of   Personal    Dignity 193 

5  Discipline,   Instruction  in  Morals 212 

6  The  Teacher  and   Society 218 

7  The  Pedagogic  Preparation   of  the  Teacher     ....  226 

Conclusion 238 

Index 245 

9 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE 
SECONDARY  TEACHER 


PROBLEMS  OF  THE 
SECONDARY  TEACHER 


CHAPTER  I 

THE    SECONDARY   TEACHER 

I.     Our  Vocation 

THE  teacher's  vocation  is  unique.  It  is  full  of  difficulty 
and  it  is  charged  with  the  highest  responsibilities.  The 
demands  made  upon  him  by  official  boards,  parents,  and  more 
particularly  by  the  pupils  are  boundless.  But  the  obligations 
which  the  conscientious  teacher  imposes  upon  himself  —  he 
should  at  least  —  are  of  vastly  greater  consequence.  Of  the 
multitudes  of  young  people  expecting  to  teach  in  our  secondary 
schools  after  graduation  from  college,  but  a  very  few  have  any- 
thing like  a  clear  conception  of  the  responsibilities  involved. 
And  even  those  of  us  who  are  in  the  active  service,  after  having 
entered  upon  our  difficult  task,  rarely  find  time,  leisure  and 
concentration,  to  reflect  upon  ourselves.  It  seems  to  me  that 
the  vague,  uncertain  and  consequent  unsatisfactory  position  of 
the  secondary  teacher  at  present  is  chiefly  due  to  this  lack  of 
clearness  concerning  our  duties,  the  utter  failure  to  appreciate 
the  social  function  of  the  secondary  school  and  the  teacher  of 
the  secondary  school. 

We  are  scientifically  trained  and  we  are,  generally  speaking, 
interested  in  science  and  accordingly  we  strive  to  keep  in  touch 
with  the  representatives  of  science,  the  University  professors. 
We  are  teachers,  we  feel  the  need  of  discussion  on  method  and 
the  art  of  teaching  and  we  occasionally  visit  the  educational 
association  conventions  held  by  the  teachers  of  the  public 
schools. 

7 


8  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

We  come  under  criticism  from  various  angles.  The  educa- 
tional authorities  on  the  one  hand  are  critical  from  the  view- 
point of  the  organized  state,  and  society  at  large  on  the  other 
is  apt  to  approach  us  from  a  more  individualistic  point  of 
view.  Short-comings  are  as  variously  ascribed  to  tradition,  to 
social  conditions,  or  even  to  malignity,  both  on  the  part  of  the 
parents  or  the  official  boards.  And  we  look  for  improvement 
of  the  conditions.  But  it  seems  to  me  that  external  remedies 
will  not  relieve  the  situation.  It  must  proceed  from  within 
ourselves.  It  becomes  imperative,  therefore,  that  we  apply 
ourselves  diligently  to  self-study.  We  must  first  of  all  raise 
the  very  serious  question  whether  we  have  reflected  with 
sufficient  seriousness  on  what  we  are  and  what  we  ought  to  be. 
Do  we  really  have  a  clear  conception  of  the  nature  and  pur- 
pose of  the  secondary  school  in  which  we  are  engaged?  Have 
we  ever  been  fully  conscious  of  all  the  problems  which  confront 
the  secondary  teacher?  Do  we  understand  the  tremendously 
important  social  function  which  the  secondary  school,  together 
with  its  teachers,  is  called  upon  and  obliged  to  exercise  in  the 
social  organization  ?  I  fear  the  most  of  us  would  not  pass  this 
self-examination,  which  seems  to  me  indispensable  to  a  proper 
appreciation  of  the  purpose  and  dignity  of  the  profession.  The 
point  at  issue  here  is  to  show  that  we  are  really  and  truly 
teachers.  We  must  announce  the  results  of  each  examination 
clearly,  with  inexorable  truthfulness  and  without  regard  for 
personal  feelings,  which  in  this  case  means  ourselves.  Whoever 
approaches  the  examination  poorly  prepared  must  fail.  We 
require  the  courage  therefore  to  permit  ourselves  at  least  for 
once  in  our  lives  to  fail  at  our  own  hands  and  be  required  to 
repeat.  This  will  mean  severe  application  in  order  that  we 
may  make  up  quickly  and  thoroughly  what  has  been  neglected. 

I  am  rash  enough  to  offer  myself  as  a  preceptor  for  the 
preparation  for  renewed  self-examination.  I  offer  the  results 
of  my  experiences  gathered  from  the  practical  life  of  a  peda- 
gogue, covering  a  period  of  thirty  years,  and  latterly  as  in- 
structor of  pedagogy,  together  with  my  conclusions  drawn  from 
the  study  of  psychology  and  sociolog}^  I  shall  endeavor  in  the 
following  pages  to  explain  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the  sec- 
ondary school  more  clearly,  as  it  seems  to  me,  than  has  hitherto 
been  done.     I  shall  discuss  the  scientific,  the  pedagogic-didactic 


The  Secondary  Teacher  9 

and  the  social-ethical  duties  of  the  secondary  teacher  and  thus 
be  in  a  position  not  only  to  offer  general  principles  to  pros- 
pective teachers  and  to  teachers  with  limited  experience,  who 
may  care  to  make  use  of  it,  but  likewise  to  give  many  prac- 
tical suggestions  directly  applicable  to  the  real  work  of  the 
school.  But  my  deepest  concern  in  this  whole  matter  is  to  show 
my  present  and  future  vocational  colleagues  that  the  secondary 
teacher  possesses  a  field  of  influence  at  once  profound  and  ex- 
tensive, his  exclusive  possession,  without  any  other  occupants 
and  beyond  the  possibility  of  any  counter  claimants,  which  fur- 
nishes the  opportunity  for  personal  development  wholly  unique 
and  at  the  same  time  satisfying  the  highest  ambitions.  The 
secondary  school  has  its  own  specific  problems  which  are  clearly 
definable  and  hence  requires  specially  prepared  teachers  who 
understand  its  problems  and  devote  themselves  to  their  high 
social  task.  We  have  at  least  no  need  to  obtrude  ourselves  upon 
anyone  either  above,  below,  or  in  any  way  beyond  our  circle. 
The  association  with  our  pupils  and  with  our  colleagues  and 
the  constant,  quiet  application  to  a  fuller  development  of  our 
own  personality,  furnishes  us  abundant  satisfaction.  We  must 
first  of  all  get  a  correct  estimate  of  ourselves,  we  need  to  know 
exactly  what  we  are  and  regulate  our  conduct,  our  life,  ac- 
cordingly. The  more  thoroughly  we  master  this  problem  of 
self-knowledge  and  autonomous  self-estimation,  the  more  rapidly 
will  we  attain  the  respect  among  all  classes  of  people,  which 
corresponds  to  our  high  calling. 

The  mental  task  for  which  I  am  anxious  to  enlist  my  pres- 
ent, and  more  especially  my  future  vocational  colleagues  is  by 
no  means  easy  nor  insignificant.  The  first  requirement  is  a 
definite,  strong  determination,  a  vigorous  spiritual  backbone, 
which  will  force  us  out  of  the  customary  ways  of  thinking  and, 
more  particularly,  the  customary  thoughtlessness.  As  soon  as 
we  are  thoroughly  initiated  to  the  new  mental  vision  it  will  be 
necessary  to  review  carefully  and  thoroughly  the  whole  field  of 
our  preparation  and  of  our  vocational  activity  from  this  new 
viewpoint.  The  university  courses  already  completed  or  still 
in  prospect  of  completion,  the  further  scientific  education  for  the 
purpose  of  fixing  and  of  extending  knowledge,  the  preparation 
for  teaching,  the  management  of  pupils,  methods,  the  relation 
to  school  boards  and  to  colleagues,  to  parents  and  to  the  gen- 


lO  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

eral  public,  will  all  appear  in  a  new  light.  We  will  then 
recognize  clearly  wherein  the  university  fails  by  virtue  of  its 
regulations  and  wherein  we  have  permitted  it  to  fail  by  our 
own  mistakes.  The  things  we  have  learned  there  that  seemed 
superfluous  will  then  no  longer  appear  superfluous,  but  as 
"  superflu,  chose  tres  necessaire."  We  will  then  be  able  to  fill 
in  the  gaps  which  remain  with  genuine  interest  and  undoubted 
gain.  Once  we  are  fully  imbued  with  the  great  problem  of  our 
vocation,  the  conviction  follows,  that  our  purpose  can  be  re- 
alized only  by  the  slow,  steady,  consciously  directed,  daily  oc- 
cupation with  small  tasks  and  that  on  this  account  the  things 
in  our  work  which  seem  insignificant  become  important.  The 
reproach  of  pedantr}^  so  often  brought  against  school  teachers 
will  then  appear  in  a  new  light  and  we  will  no  longer  regard 
it  as  a  serious  reproach. 

2.     The  Synthesis  of  Science  and  Pedagogy 

The  first  synthesis  to  be  effected  is  that  between  the  scholar 
and  the  teacher,  or  as  I  prefer  to  express  it,  between  science  and 
pedagogy.  During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
when,  especially  in  Prussia,  but  in  other  parts  of  Germany  as 
well,  the  new-humanistic  gymnasium  founded  under  the  auspices 
of  Goethe  and  Herder  and  especially  Fr.  Aug.  Wolf,  the  opin- 
ion generally  prevailed  that  a  strictly  scientific  education  is  quite 
sufficient  for  the  gj^mnasial  teacher.  The  school  teachers  of 
those  days  were  all  classsical  philologists  and  they  were  par- 
ticularly disdainful  of  pedagogy.  And  the  educational  con- 
sistory of  Prussia  likewise  placed  the  greatest,  almost  exclusive, 
emphasis  on  the  scientific,  i.  e.,  philological,  education  of  teachers. 
Paulsen's  History  of  Higher  Education  furnishes  abundant 
proof  of  the  prevalence  of  these  views,  and  he  constantly  refers 
to  the  sources  with  great  care.  I  quote  several  characteristic 
passages.  Paulsen  describes  (vol.  II,  269  f¥)  the  development 
of  the  philosophical  faculties  in  the  nineteenth  century  and  the 
Seminaries  founded  during  the  same  period :  "  The  philological 
Seminaries  are  the  oldest  institutions  of  this  kind.  Founded 
originally  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  a  thorough  prepara- 
tion for  the  teaching  profession,  during  the  nineteenth  century 
they   became   places   of   scientific   research   pure   and   simple." 


The  Secondary  Teacher  II 

"  The  Institute  completely  devoted  to  the  education  of  schol- 
ars; the  actual  future  vocation  of  the  majority  of  the  mem- 
bers, that  of  teaching,  as  such,  receives  no  consideration  what- 
ever." (270)  "  Later  statutes  (e.  g.  Halle,  1857,  Münster, 
1854)  make  express  mention  of  the  fact  that  they  likewise  give 
special  attention  to  the  preparation  of  teachers  for  the  higher 
schools,  but  not  indeed  in  the  way  of  guidance  in  acquiring  the 
art  of  teaching,  but  simply  through  furnishing  a  scientific  train- 
ing. These  statutes  do  not  provide,  according  to  Wiese  (Hist. 
Statis.  Darst.  I.  525)  for  the  teaching  of  pedagog}^  but  that 
instruction  shall  be  given  to  independent  application  and  ad- 
vancement of  science.  It  is  presumed  that  a  thorough  pursuit  of 
scientific  studies  is  at  the  same  time  a  training  in  method,  that 
systematically  acquired  science  likewise  enables  a  methodical 
application,  whilst  methods  without  any  deeper  comprehension 
of  the  subject-matter  soon  become  an  empty,  mechanical 
routine."  (271)  "It  is  indeed  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the 
pedagogical  enthusiasm  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  almost 
wholly  extinguished  by  the  scientific  enthusiasm  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Especially  were  the  philologists  outspoken  in 
their  contempt  for  pedagogy.  Be  enthusiastic  and  understand 
how  to  inspire  enthusiasm,  was  the  principle  which  gave 
rise  to  the  whole  pedagogy  of  Wolf.  Ritschl  thinks  that  teach- 
ing will  come  naturally  to  anyone  who  has  the  knov/ledge. 
And  the  youthful  Lehrs,  even  while  under  appointment  at  a 
Königsberg  Gymnasium,  in  the  customary^  biographic  sketches 
introduced  into  the  program  of  the  institution,  could  not  re- 
frain from  deliverances  like  the  following:  'This  conviction 
preserved  me  (notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  life  of  an  edu- 
cator was  constantly  hovering  before  my  mind)  from  the  di- 
gression, temptations  to  which  were  at  that  time  not  wanting, 
of  dissipating  and  wasting  my  time  with  the  study  of  pedagogy, 
as  they  call  it.  Furthermore;  for  anyone  to  set  limits  to  his 
science,  to  wish  to  master  it  for  the  sake  of  an  immediate  and 
pressing  need,  savors  of  the  calculation  of  the  trader,  and  the 
attempt  to  learn  how  to  deal  with  men  from  a  text  book  in 
psycholog}^  is  childish.'  "  (253.)  Principal  Spilleke  describes 
the  slight  esteem  into  which  pedagogy  had  fallen  among  the 
philological  governors  of  the  schools  as  follows :  "  It  is  a  most 
remarkable  phenomenon  that  inasmuch  as  the  elementary  school 


12  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

organization  has  during  the  past  thirty  years  shown  extraor- 
dinary progress  in  matters  of  didactics  and  method  and  has 
trained  a  generation  of  teachers  who  deserve  admiration  for 
their  abihty  to  inspire  the  masses  by  their  pedagogic  skill  and 
by  their  general  adaptability,  the  Gymnasia  have  nevertheless 
taken  no  notice  whatever,  or  at  least  very  little,  of  the  great 
changes  taking  place  in  the  pedagogical  world.  A  gymnasial 
teacher  who  had  so  far  departed  from  the  way  as  to  read  a  book 
on  pedagogy  or  to  manifest  an  interest  in  the  subject  had  almost 
to  be  ashamed  in  the  presence  of  his  colleagues  and  fear  being 
regarded  a  poor  schoolmaster  deserving  pity.  Not  a  few  of 
the  gymnasial  teachers  hold  it  as  a  fundamental  principle  that 
a  man  can  teach  any  subject  in  which  he  has  been  instructed. 
Baumeister,  who  quotes  this  passage  in  the  introduction  to  his 
Handbook  of  Pedagogy,  adds:  '  One  might  almost  think  they 
had  only  recently  been  written.'  "      (276) 

This  onesided  and  almost  exclusive  concern  for  the  scientific 
training  of  the  gymnasial  teacher  has,  at  least  in  Germany 
during  the  first  two-thirds  of  the  nineteenth  century,  had  a  very 
wholesome  result  for  our  profession.  It  has  enhanced  the 
respect  for  the  profession  in  an  extraordinary  manner.  Paulsen 
describes  this  with  his  customary  clearness  and  vividness  (II, 
387  ff.  Esp  389).  And  it  follows  from  this  that  we  are  obliged 
to  insist  with  all  emphasis  and  zeal  that  the  scientific  training 
of  the  secondary  teacher  must  not  be  neglected  or  supplanted 
by  any  means.  Our  authority  and  our  social  position,  as  history 
shows,  rests  on  our  scientific  training.  The  results  of  our 
instruction  depend  above  all  else  upon  our  scientific  efficiency, 
and  the  introductory  ordinance  of  the  second  edition  of  the 
"Instructions"^  is  perfectly  right  in  saying:  "The  art  of 
teaching,  in  so  far  as  an  art  can  be  acquired,  can,  at  least  in  the 
sphere  of  education  to  which  these  instructions  apply,  be  ac- 
quired only  under  the  presupposition  that  the  teacher  is  com- 
plete master  of  his  subject  matter,  in  constant  touch  with  the 
advances  made  by  science  and  continually  draws  thence  re- 
newed strength  and  love  for  his  arduous  calling." 

It  is  impossible  therefore  to  emphasize  too  strongly  or  too 
frequently  that  scientific  efficiency  is  the  vital  source  and  sole 
justification  of  our  profession.     But  we  must  nevertheless  in- 

1  Courses  and  Directions  for  Teaching  in  the  Gymnasia  of  Austria. 


The  Secondary  Teacher  13 

sist  just  as  clearlj''  and  just  as  decidedly  that  the  ability  for 
scientific  research,  the  thorough  mastery  of  the  methods  and  prin- 
ciples of  science,  the  restriction  to  a  limited  field,  indispensable 
to  the  scholar,  are  uttterly  inadequate  to  a  correct  comprehen- 
sion and  the  solution  of  the  problems  of  the  secondary  school  and 
of  the  secondary  teacher.  We  must  not  only  learn  to  under- 
stand and  love  science,  but  likewise  our  pupils.  It  is  our  busi- 
ness to  quicken  the  mental  powers  of  our  pupils  which  ripen 
the  desire  and  the  ability  to  give  a  scientific  account  of  their 
environment.  But  in  order  to  do  this  it  is  necessary  that  we 
prepare  ourselves  thoroughly  and  at  the  proper  time.  Moreover 
the  science  and  the  art  of  education  and  instruction  are  not  the 
mere  inventions  of  yesterday.  Great  minds  have  reflected 
upon  these  problems  for  several  thousand  years,  and  it  is  there- 
fore a  false  procedure  to  direct  the  young  teacher  to  begin  at 
the  beginning  with  these  matters  and  draw  ever^'thing  from 
his  own  resources.  At  the  beginning  of  the  first  Olympic  ora- 
tion Demosthenes  speaks  of  two  kinds  of  orators.  The  one 
come  well  prepared  (xprjccp-ov  IdKejxixivov)  and  present  their 
plan  systematically.  The  others  depend  on  inspiration  and 
speak  from  the  stirrup  {Ik  rov  TzapaxprjiJ-a.) .  They  have 
hitherto  for  too  long  a  time  imposed  the  frequently  very 
painful  position  of  the  stirrup-teacher  upon  us  and  left  us 
to  ourselves  to  adjust  to  the  schools.  I  still  remember  quite 
vividly  with  what  feeling  of  trepidation  I  entered  the  class-room 
as  teacher  for  the  first  time  more  than  thirty  j^ars  ago.  But 
in  the  course  of  recent  decades  there  has  been  an  increasing  de- 
mand from  the  widest  variety  of  view-points  that  the  secondary 
school  teacher  should  likewise  be  pedagogically  prepared  for 
his  calling. 

The  things  which  have  been  attempted  and  accomplished  in 
this  line,  the  probationary  year,  the  university  and  school- 
sem.inars,  the  so-called  further  probationary  years  and  ever}'- 
thing  pertaining  to  these  matters  are  carefully  compiled  and 
discussed  in  the  important  volume  bj'^  William  Fries,  The 
Preparation  of  the  Teacher  for  His  Office.  (Baufneisters 
Handbook^  vol.  2,  first  division  B.)  No  arrangement  meeting 
all  the  requirements  has  as  yet  been  found,  and  we  will  doubt- 
less still  have  to  expend  much  labor  and  reflection  in  order  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  time  in   this  respect.     We  shall  have 


14  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

occasion  to  return  to  this  point  later.  But  we  must  observe 
this  one  thing  in  passing,  namel}^  that  in  recent  years  the  peda- 
gogical preparation  of  the  secondary  teacher  has  been  empha- 
sized almost  as  onesidedly  as  was  previously  the  case  with  the 
scientific  preparation.  Unfortunately  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
there  has  been  a  marked  decline  in  the  scientific  efficiency  of  the 
secondary  school  teachers  during  recent  decades.  Whether  this 
fact  can  be  adequately  explained  by  the  somewhat  deeper  in- 
terest in  problems  of  method  and  didactics,  I  do  not  care  to 
decide  at  present.  One  thing  is  nevertheless  certain,  namely, 
that  at  least  with  us  in  Austria  the  scientific  regression  has  not 
enhanced  the  respect  for  our  profession. 

We  must  therefore  never  state  the  question  alternatively, 
whether  science  or  pedagogy  is  our  chief  concern.  We  must 
realize  the  synthesis  emphasized  above,  the  vital  blending  of 
the  scholar  and  the  teacher  in  us.  We  need  scientific  educa- 
tion most  unqualifiedly.  We  must  learn  to  understand  the 
work  of  the  investigator,  since  we  are  to  participate  in  it.  We 
must  proceed  far  enough  to  be  able  always  to  be  above  the  text 
books.  We  must  —  and  this  is  the  essence  of  the  desired  syn- 
thesis —  we  must  press  forward  to  the  conception  that  for  us 
science  is  not  an  end  in  itself,  but  that  it  is  only  a  means.  Our 
end,  our  life's  problem  is  the  school.  Inasmuch  as  we  devote 
our  whole  energy  to  it,  we  have  the  best  and  surest  opportunity 
to  develop  ourselves  to  complete,  consciously  purposeful,  inde- 
pendent personalities.  Here  every  slumbering  energy  is  de- 
veloped, here  we  must  find  our  joys  and  satisfactions.  All  that 
we  are  and  all  that  we  are  able  to  do  belongs  to  the  school. 
And  for  this  reason  too  science  is  not  an  end  for  us,  but  a 
means. 

This  is  in  no  sense  a  depreciation  of  science.  It  is  not  & 
matter  of  alternatives  between  the  "  heavenly  goddess  "  and 
the  "  milking  cow."  In  the  light  of  modern  psychology  and 
sociology  this  conception  can  no  longer  be  maintained.  All 
the  sciences  owe  their  origin  to  practical  needs,  and  the  highest 
aim  of  human  endeavor  must  forever  consist  of  the  effort  to 
make  the  life  of  the  individual  and  of  the  human  race  richer, 
more  complete  and  happier.  Whenever  therefore  we  use  sci- 
ence for  the  purpose  of  inspiring  and  educating  the  minds  of 
our  pupils,  whenever  we  impart  to  them  the  necessary  equip- 


The  Secondary  Teacher  15 

ment  for  life  by  means  of  furnishing  them  with  facts  and  by- 
habituating  them  to  individual  effort,  it  is  then  that  we  have 
applied  science  to  that  which  by  its  real  nature  it  is  intended, 
the  advancement  of  life. 

If  the  secondary  school  teacher  is  at  the  same  time  able  to 
engage  in  independent  research  work,  it  will  be  of  advantage 
to  him  in  his  vocation,  as  we  shall  show  farther  on,  and  he 
will  thus  likewise  contribute  to  the  elevation  of  the  dignity  of 
the  profession.  However,  if  he  has  fully  realized  the  desired 
synthesis,  he  will  understand  that  his  whole  effort  must  never- 
theless be  devoted  to  the  school  and  science  be  only  a  pastime. 
He  will  not  forget  the  teacher  for  the  scholar,  not  neglect  or 
indeed  despise,  but  know  that  he  must  likewise  cultivate  and 
foster  those  phases  of  his  science  which  do  not  appeal  to  him  as 
an  investigator,  wherever  the  school  requires  it.  Whoever,  like 
myself  for  example,  who  as  a  teacher  of  the  classical  languages 
and  philosophical  propadeutic,  applies  himself  scientifically  to 
psychology  and  philosophy,  must  at  the  same  time  be  concerned 
about  Latin  style,  German  orthography,  Greek  meter  and  like- 
wise be  at  home  in  Roman  politics  as  well  as  in  the  Homeric 
problems  and  in  the  Attic  system  of  legal  procedure.  As 
teachers  we  cannot  by  any  means  limit  ourselves  to  a  brief  time 
period  as  the  scholar  is  bound  to  do. 

This  synthesis  of  science  and  pedagogy  is  an  unqualified  re- 
quirement for  the  secondary  teacher.  The  sooner  and  the 
more  completely  we  give  ourselves  this, —  perhaps  somewhat 
painful  for  many, —  mental  jolt,  the  better  it  will  be  for  us. 
Whoever  is  so  fortunate  as  to  gain  this  insight  while  still  at  the 
university,  will  get  great  advantage  from  it  in  pursuing  his 
studies.  He  will  guard  against  undertaking  scientific  investi- 
gations which  will  confine  him  for  a  number  of  j'cars  to  a  small 
part  of  his  subject.  He  will  rather  seek  themes  which  will 
furnish  an  opportunity  to  become  acquainted  with  broader 
fields  and  furnish  him  with  a  comprehensive  view.  The  classi- 
cal philologist,  who  has  rightly  conceived  his  future  vocation, 
will  thus,  for  example,  prefer  investigations  which  will  require 
him  to  study  extensively  Homer,  the  Tragedians  or  Plato, 
Thucydides,  Demosthenes  and  the  other  orators,  or  those  which 
furnish  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  Virgil,  Horace,  Cicero, 
Tacitus  or  Livy.     The  historian  will  then  scarcely  devote  six 


1 6  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

or  eight  semesters  exclusively  to  the  late  Roman  emperors.  He 
will  rather  institute  a  limited  investigation  to  the  Pentekontatie, 
and  afterwards  another  to  the  period  of  the  Gracchii,  and  then 
again  devote  himself  to  the  Hohenstaufen  emperor  Frederick  II 
and  undertake  an  essay  on  the  period  of  Wallenstein  and 
Napoleon. 

But  it  will  do  no  harm  if  this  synthesis  is  realized  first  by 
the  young  teacher.  The  work  of  the  school  will  show  him 
best,  what  is  still  lacking  in  his  training.  If  the  university  has 
given  him  the  ability  to  work  systematically;  it  will  not  be 
difficult  for  him  to  fill  in  the  gaps  gradually  and  to  combine 
breadth  with  thoroughness.  We  will  have  occasion  to  illustrate 
this  synthesis  by  examples  at  greater  length  when  we  come  to 
discuss  the  duties  of  the  secondary  teacher.  Here  it  is  of 
primary  importance  to  show  that  the  only  way  we  can  prop- 
erly conceive  and  discharge  our  vocation  is  under  the  clear 
conviction  that  we  must  put  science  into  the  service  of  the 
school.  Whoever  is  filled  with  this  conception  will  soon  begin 
of  his  own  accord  to  be  interested  in  general  principles  of  edu- 
cation and  instruction  as  well  as  in  the  special  methods  of  his 
subject.  He  will  desire  to  be  a  teacher  and  educator,  not  a 
scholar  and  an  investigator,  and  it  is  this  desire  that  appears 
to  me  to  be  the  important  matter.  Our  calling  verifies  the  old 
English  proverb,  where  there  is  a  will,  there  is  a  way,  very 
uniquely.  Whoever  seeks  earnestly  will  certainly  find  a  way, 
and  moreover,  the  way  that  is  adapted  to  his  own  individuality. 
There  are  now  an  abundance  of  guides,  so  that  everyone  can 
select  such  as  suits  his  purpose. 

We  find  at  present  that  the  personality  of  the  teacher  receives 
more  emphasis  than  formerly  and  rightly  so.  We  have  come  to 
see  that  the  best  course  and  the  best  teaching  art  become  effective 
only  as  they  become  vital  forces  through  the  personality  of  the 
teacher.  But  we  are  not  always  clear  as  to  the  nature  and 
growth  of  personality.  We  frequently  speak  of  individuality 
and  personality  and  mean  nothing  more  than  an  unorganized 
bundle  of  impulses,  phantasms,  passions,  whims,  peculiarities  and 
bad  habits.  But  whoever  understands  the  development  of  man- 
kind, whoever  clearly  conceives  the  significance  of  the  process  of 
differentiation  in  the  civilization  of  man,  must  conclude  that  the 
individual  can  become  a  really  complete  and  forceful  personality 


The  Secondary  Teacher  17 

only  as  he  discovers  some  great  fact  of  social  importance  to  which 
he  devotes  himself  and  in  which  he  is  completely  absorbed  by  his 
own  resolve  and  volition.  Josiah  Royce,  the  American  philoso- 
pher, brought  this  out  very  forcefully  in  his  excellent  book,  The 
Philosophy  of  Loyalty,  and  it  seems  to  me  significant  that 
this  idea  is  reaching  wider  circles.  Our  calling  is  certainly  an 
important  one,  of  high  social  significance.  Anyone  who  fully 
devotes  himself  to  these  matters  will  find  abundant  opportunity 
to  unfold  his  individuality  and  to  develop  a  forceful,  complete 
personality.  Devotion  to  these  great  matters  quickens  every 
hidden  force,  we  recognize  our  strength  and  our  weakness. 
Goethe  observes,  "  Peculiarities  will  indeed  remain,  cultivate 
your  capacities/'  The  teacher  who  would  struggle  upwards  to 
personality  will  follow  this  striking  suggestion.  He  will  have 
his  peculiarities  like  everyone  else,  but  that  does  no  harm.  He 
will  however  not  find  the  essence  of  personality  in  these  pe- 
culiarities, but  in  the  deeper  attributes  of  the  soul  which  attain 
their  complete  development  in  vocational  activity.  Personality 
thus  matured  and  refined  is  the  only  one  that  possesses  the  force 
which  will  really  affect  the  pupils.  But  it  has  thereby  likewise 
acquired  the  right  to  be  obeyed  and  respected.  Anyone  who  has 
made  of  himself  such  a  personality  as  this  will  arrange  his  own 
methods  and  discover  the  path  to  a  pedagogy  adapted  to  his 
needs.  The  beginning  of  this  path  however  will  always  lead 
through  science,  through  strict  science  which  demands  the  whole 
man.  We  must  adhere  to  this  unflinchingly.  It  is  the  source 
of  our  power  and  of  our  distinction. 

3.     Synthesis  of  Officer  and  Teacher 

The  synthesis  of  science  and  pedagogy  is  therefore  the  first 
fundamental  requirement  which  every  secondary  teacher  must 
impose  upon  himself.  The  fact  that  the  secondary  teacher  is 
in  a  position  to  develop  himself  into  an  independent  and  ener- 
getic, professionally  conscious,  personality  is  likewise  one  of  the 
most  important  conditions  to  this  end.  The  second  synthesis 
which  we  propose,  the  harmonious  blending  of  the  officer  and  the 
teacher  which  each  of  us  is  expected  to  realize  in  his  own  per- 
son, tends  to  produce  the  same  effect. 

The  secondary  teacher  is  at  present  an  officer  of  the  state. 


1 8  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

He  is  in  the  direct  or  indirect  service  of  the  state  from  which 
follows,  as  the  inevitable  consequence  of  this  relation,  the 
duty  of  subjection  and  the  duty  of  integration.  Munch  has 
elaborated  this  point  very  thoroughly  in  his  splendid  book  on 
The  Spirit  of  the  Teacher  s  Office,  and  Matthias  likewise 
takes  occasion  to  discuss  it  in  his  excellent  Practical  Pedagogy. 
As  public  officers  it  is  unquestionably  our  duty  to  adapt  our- 
selves to  the  instructions  of  the  authorities  especially  in  so  far 
as  they  affect  the  external  conduct  of  the  business  of  the  school. 
We  must  teach  the  branches  which  are  referred  to  us,  we 
must  observe  the  time  periods  strictly,  conduct  the  oversight  in 
church  and  in  the  corridors  of  the  school  buildings,  we  must 
see  to  it  that  the  written  exercises  are  done  in  the  prescribed 
number  and  in  the  prescribed  time,  we  must  correct  and  return 
them  at  the  proper  time,  we  are  obliged  to  recognize  and  fol- 
low the  orders  of  the  authorities,  we  must  also  do  the  writing 
connected  with  the  granting  of  certificates  and  with  the  con- 
ferences, in  short,  there  are  many  things  and  many  times  in 
which  we  must  obey. 

No  honest  teacher  would  care  to  deny  that  the  discharge  of 
his  official  duties,  especially  as  far  as  they  pertain  to  external 
matters  have  frequently  become  burdensome,  exceedingly  bur- 
densome and  oppressive.  The  psychological  ground  of  this 
feeling  however  is  not  generally  due  to  laziness  or  over-sensi- 
tiveness. It  lies  much  deeper.  We  are  in  fact  not  merely 
public  officers,  we  are  above  all  else  teachers  and  that  is  what 
we  are  intended  to  be.  But  then  our  actual  vocational  activity 
is  so  arranged  as  to  contradict  the  duty  of  subjection  imposed 
on  the  public  officer. 

In  his  classes  the  teacher  is  the  superior,  the  leader.  The 
function  of  the  teacher  consists  in  guiding,  in  leading.  It  is 
his  duty  to  direct  and  to  command.  The  interests  of  educa- 
tion and  discipline,  that  is  to  say  the  interests  of  the  matter  of 
our  service,  requires  us  to  insist  upon  the  pupils  complying 
with  our  rules  and  regulations.  We  must  decide  how  and  with 
what  the  pupils  are  to  be  occupied  at  a  given  time,  we  must 
assign  what  is  to  be  prepared  and  studied  for  the  next  period, 
we  must  criticise  the  work  of  the  pupils,  in  short,  in  the  per- 
formance of  our  actual  vocational  duties  we  feel  entirely  inde- 
pendent and  responsible.     This  independence  is  not  merely  our 


The  Secondary  Teacher  19 

privilege,  but  in  a  far  higher  degree  our  duty.  We  must  bring 
our  whole  personality  to  bear  on  our  pupils  in  order  to  in- 
fluence them,  which  is  possible  only  when  the  feeling  of  the 
unrestrained  exercise  of  our  powers  is  not  constantly  curbed 
by  the  embarrassing  fear  of  interference  on  the  part  of  higher 
authorities. 

If  the  teacher  is  therefore  accustomed  to  proceed  freely  and 
independently  in  his  class  room  in  proportion  as  he  has  fully 
identified  himself  with  the  responsibilities  of  the  position  of 
leader,  it  cannot  but  be  difficult  for  him,  outside  the  school, 
especially  in  the  presence  of  the  Board  instantly  to  become  the 
submissive  servant  with  the  restricted  prerogatives  of  an  under- 
ling. This  profound  contradiction  which  attaches  to  our  call- 
ing is  frequently  the  source  of  the  strong  dissatisfaction  unfor- 
tunately found  so  often  among  secondary  teachers.  The  cause 
lies  in  the  fact  that  a  vigorous,  courageous,  genuinely  established 
professional  consciousness  cannot  properly  develop  under  such 
conditions.  If  the  officer  in  us  gains  the  mastery  over  the 
teacher,  then  the  class  room  is  no  longer  our  chief  concern.  It 
seems  to  be  more  important  for  progress  and  advancement,  that 
we  Tots  Iv  Tc\€L  ßeßiöaLv  be  in  favor  with  those  at  the  top, 
that  we  timorously  avoid  everything  which  might  bring  us  even 
a  shadow  of  criticism.  A  positive  vital  enthusiasm  for  work 
no  longer  dominates  the  class  room,  but  rather  a  mechanical 
precision.  The  vigorous  and  cheerful  endeavor  to  advance  the 
young  is  frequently  supplanted  by  a  characterless  seeking  for 
position.     The  officer  in  us  has  slain  the  teacher. 

But  if  the  spirit  of  the  teacher  has  been  kept  alive,  if  we 
have  preserved  our  inner  freedom  and  independence,  if  the 
class  room  is  the  place  of  our  distinctive  activity,  into  which  we 
throw  our  whole  personality,  then  on  the  other  hand  we 
readily  get  into  difficulties  of  a  different  order.  Every  decree 
of  the  director,  every  conference,  everj^  regulation  of  the  gen- 
eral inspector  of  schools  or  of  the  minister  of  education  will  then 
frequently  appear  as  an  infringement  on  our  personal  liberty. 
Opposition  to  the  director  consumes  valuable  spiritual  energy 
which  could  be  used  to  better  advantage  and  far  more  fruit- 
fully in  the  service  of  the  young  people.  One  is  disposed  to 
speak  disparagingly  of  the  ordinances  of  the  authorities,  which 
affect  only  externals  or  are  regarded  as  so  general  as  to  make 


20  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

but  little  difference  in  the  actual  process  of  instruction.  But 
it  then  occasionally  happens  that  we  are  told  very  plainly  that 
we  are  merely  a  teaching  force,  a  teaching  individual  or  a 
teaching  person,  whose  business  it  is  to  submit  to  the  directions 
of  superiors.  It  frequently  happens  that  a  general  inspector  of 
schools  regards  it  as  his  peculiar  duty  to  clearly  impress  upon 
the  consciousness  of  such  enthusiastic  teachers,  who  do  their 
own  thinking,  that  their  position  is  a  subordinate  one  and  it 
is  their  business  to  obey.  Personally  I  have  always  belonged 
to  the  latter  category  of  teachers,  and  never  permitted  myself 
to  be  robbed  of  the  joy  of  teaching.  But  I  must  confess,  that, 
especially  during  the  early  years  of  my  teaching  experiences, 
I  not  infrequently  suffered  deep  anguish  of  this  sort.  I  clearly 
recall  even  now  the  criticism  which  a  school  inspector  —  he 
has  died  since  and  I  therefore  withhold  his  name  —  passed  on 
my  work  after  several  weeks'  inspection  of  the  institution. 
I  was  fully  convinced  that  the  classes  he  visited  were  doing 
real  thinking  and  the  pupils  like\vise  gave  evidence  of  a  very 
respectable  ability.  I  certainly  expected  some  words  of  ap- 
preciation. Instead  of  this  however  there  was  nothing  but 
petty  grumbling  and  fault-finding.  In  the  one  subject  —  it 
was  psychology  in  the  eighth  grade  (corresponding  to  the  Prima 
in  Germany) — in  which  he  was  forced  to  admit  the  lively 
participation  of  the  pupils,  he  did  it  with  a  patronizing  accent. 
I  was  so  deeply  agitated  by  this  criticism,  which  I  regarded  so 
palpably  unjust,  and  my  soul  so  deeply  mortified  that  for  several 
days  I  was  fully  determined  to  resign.  Fortunately  considera- 
tion for  my  family  prevented  my  taking  this  rash  step  and  I 
afterwards  learned  to  treat  such  matters  differently. 

I  have  related  this  experience  in  order  to  show  that  the 
inherent  contradiction  of  our  vocation,  between  the  teacher  and 
the  officer,  will  as  a  matter  of  fact  frequently  lead  to  profound 
soul-struggles  and  hence  that  victory  over  them  becomes  a  mat- 
ter of  life  or  death.  And  this  victory  can  never  be  a  mere 
one-sided  affair.  Neither  the  officer  nor  the  teacher  within  us 
can  have  complete  control.  We  must  rather  seek  to  realize  the 
synthesis  of  the  two  as  described  above.  This  synthesis  is  dif- 
ficult, exceedingly  difficult,  at  least  more  difficult  than  that 
between  science  and  pedagogy.  But  the  difficulty  is  still  not  on 
this   account   impossible.     Dr.    Samuel    Howe,    the   American 


The  Secondary  Teacher  2i 

philanthropist  and  pedagogue,  heard  of  a  deaf-blind  girl  in  the 
vicinity  of  Boston  where  he  had  founded  the  first  American 
institute  for  the  blind  in  1 831.  He  hastened  thither,  took  the 
child  (Laura  Bridgman)  to  his  institute  and  undertook  to  en- 
able the  poor,  solitary  thing  to  speak,  read  and  write  by  means 
of  the  sense  of  touch  alone.  His  seemingly  impossible  task 
succeeded  and  since  then  there  have  been  many  others,  simi- 
larly situated,  delivered  from  their  solitude  and  restored  to 
social  fellowship  with  mankind  by  the  method  which  he  elabo- 
rated. Dr.  Howe's  pedagogical  principle  was:  "Obstacles 
are  things  to  be  overcome."  I  know  of  no  better  motto  for 
everyone  who  wishes  to  devote  himself  to  our  difficult  vocation. 
Difficult  and  impossible  must  forever  be  regarded  as  two  en- 
tirely different  things.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  I  regard  the 
synthesis  of  the  officer  and  the  teacher  as  difficult,  but  by  no 
means  impossible.  I  base  this  conclusion,  not  alone  on  gen- 
eral psychological  principles,  but  on  the  fact  that  I  myself 
together  with  many  others  have  succeeded  in  overcoming  this 
inherent  contradiction  by  such  a  synthesis. 

The  synthesis  of  science  and  pedagogy  is  realized,  as  indi- 
cated above,  by  the  determination  made  once  for  all  and  then 
rigorously  applied,  to  place  the  scientific  education  hitherto  ac- 
quired and  constantly  increased  and  deepened  in  the  service  of 
the  school.  The  far  more  difficult  synthesis  of  the  officer  and 
teacher  in  us  involves  an  analogous  process.  Whoever  feels  in- 
clined and  capable,  as  a  scientifically  educated  teacher,  of  in- 
spiring the  maturer  pupils  to  intellectual  independence  and 
moral  responsibility^,  must  clearly  understand  that  his  efforts 
cannot  realize  the  results  for  which  he  longs  and  hopes  except 
in  the  service  of  the  state.  Every  government  of  the  civilized 
world  has  discovered  that  education  is  one  of  its  functions, 
the  desire  for  scientific  discipline  and  a  more  refined  sense  of 
moral  responsibility  cannot  be  left  to  private  initiative.  The 
state  has  therefore  established  such  institutions  everywhere  and 
at  the  same  time  conferred  the  mark  of  official  rank  upon  the 
secondary  teacher.  We  are  thus  without  doubt  placed  in  a 
position  of  relative  dependence  by  which  what  is  superficially 
called  personal  liberty  is  materially  limited.  We  are  most  cer- 
tainly not  permitted  to  teach  only  at  such  times  and  such  mat- 
ters as  suits  our  inclination,  at  the  moment.     We  are  articu- 


22  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

lated  in  a  social  organization  and  things  do  not  proceed  hap- 
hazard and  without  constraint.  But  the  pubhc  office,  partici- 
pation in  a  social  organization  of  vast  importance  may  likewise 
be  considered  from  an  entirely  different  viewpoint.  All  social 
phenomena  have  a  particular  two-fold  bearing.  From  the 
standpoint  of  the  individual  they  seem  to  be  wholly  objective, 
super-individual  and  super-personal,  power  and  authority. 
They  impel,  they  restrain,  they  command  and  compel.  Such, 
indeed  is  the  effect  of  the  prescribed  laws,  the  prevailing 
customs,  the  religious  creeds  and  forms  of  worship.  But  be- 
sides this  they  operate  in  a  quite  different  fashion.  They  are 
not  merely  outside  and  alcove  us.  They  are  likewise  in  us. 
They  enrich  our  soul,  they  furnish  a  contact  and  a  spiritual 
anchorage  which,  if  left  to  ourselves,  we  could  never  attain. 
They  furnish  our  intellect,  our  feelings  and  will  with  ma- 
terial, direction  and  purpose.  The  kernel  of  this  truth  is 
nevertheless  contained  in  the  saying  of  Christ,  as  profound  as 
it  is  plain:  "  When  two  or  three  are  together  in  My  name,  I 
am  in  the  midst  of  them."  Wherever  a  number  of  persons 
unite  for  the  purpose  of  solving  a  common  moral  problem  there 
arises  among  them  and  above  them  something  of  a  higher  order, 
something  super-personal,  which  makes  the  impression  upon  the 
individual  of  being  objective,  but  which  nevertheless  at  the  same 
time  penetrates  to  the  depths  of  his  soul,  enlarges  his  own  na- 
ture and  dedicates  him  to  higher  realities. 

As  soon  as  we  contemplate  the  official  character  of  our  voca- 
tion from  this  point  of  view  it  immediately  assumes  an  entirely 
different  aspect.  By  yielding  together  with  our  colleagues  to 
the  spiritual  desire  to  train  the  young,  by  devoting  our  scientific 
training,  our  authority  and  our  personality  to  the  purpose  of 
inspiring  and  disciplining  the  intellectual  pov/ers  of  our  pupils, 
of  training  them  in  sj^stematic  work  and  the  faithful  discharge  of 
duty,  we  are  not  merely  exercising  our  own  personal  impulses. 
Far  from  it.  We  are  thus  discharging  a  most  important  and 
a  most  significant  social  service  under  the  inspiration  of  a  higher 
power.  Our  efforts  are  thus  lifted  up  from  the  sphere  of  the 
individual  to  that  of  the  super-individual.  We  are  devoting 
ourselves  to  a  matter  of  great  social  consequence,  and  this  devo- 
tion is,  therefore,  well  calculated  to  enlarge  and  to  elevate  our 
personality.     The    whole    array    and    bureaucratic    machinery 


The  Secondary   Teacher  23 

called  into  being  in  the  modern  state  for  the  purpose  of  main- 
taining the  secondary  school  and  enabling  it  to  discharge  its 
functions,  the  school  buildings  and  their  equipments,  the  Di- 
rector, the  Inspector,  the  Minister's  Counsellors,  whose  busi- 
ness has  to  do  with  the  management  of  the  secondary  school,  all 
of  this  exists  for  and  serves  but  the  single  purpose,  namely, 
that  our  efforts  in  the  classroom  may  proceed  systematically, 
under  favorable  conditions,  and  thus  produce  the  greatest  and 
best  results  possible.  The  central  member  of  the  entire  or- 
ganization, the  end  which  all  of  this  is  intended  to  serve  is  the 
class  exercise,  which  is  to  say,  we  and  our  pupils.  The  whole 
machinery  is  set  in  array  to  the  end  that  the  pupils  may  be 
instructed  and  disciplined  as  well  as  possible  as  intensively  and 
as  efficiently  as  possible  in  the  class  exercises.  If  we  clearly 
understand  the  facts  in  this  way  we  must  agree  that  the  of- 
ficial character  of  our  vocation  is  far  more  calculated  to  elevate 
the  consciousness  of  the  importance  and  dignity  of  our  pro- 
fession than  to  degrade  and  humiliate  us. 

There  is  still  another  fact  to  be  added.  The  teacher  who 
is  both  well  educated  and  an  enthusiast  in  his  calling  is  rarely 
also  an  organizer,  a  man  of  system.  Ke  lives  with  the  young 
and  for  the  young,  knows  how  to  arouse  and  perhaps  to  inspire 
them.  He  is,  however,  inclined  to  place  slight  value  on  cer- 
tain externalities,  and  easily  permits  some  old  customs  to  become 
fixed.  Put  upon  his  own  responsibility  and  left  entirely  to  his 
individual  resources  he  might  indeed  impart  instruction  very 
interestingly,  but  he  would  also  neglect  many  incidentals  and 
it  might  easily  happen  that  the  reins  would  thus  slip  entirely 
from  his  hands.  But  if  provision  for  the  systematic  arrange- 
ment of  the  course  of  instruction  comes  from  the  authorities 
outside,  if  the  Director,  for  example,  insists  on  punctuality  in 
the  class  periods,  that  the  pupils  are  on  time,  that  the  written 
exercises  be  submitted  when  due  and  likewise  returned,  the 
teacher  who  is  in  full  sj^mpathy  with  his  calling  soon  adapts 
himself  to  requirements  which  at  first  seemed  arbitrary'  and 
hard  to  meet,  and  soon  discovers  that  his  school  work  has  not 
only  not  been  increased  and  hampered,  but  relieved  and  ad- 
vanced. 

AVith  no  burdens  of  conscience  on  account  of  arrearages  in 
corrected   exercises,    disturbed    by    no   gross    infringements   of 


24  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

discipline,  he  is  in  a  position  to  fully  unfold  his  personal  gifts 
in  the  class  exercise.  He  can  then  urge  and  bestir  his  pupils 
to  his  heart's  content  and  the  better  he  succeeds  in  this  the 
greater  the  satisfaction  he  will  find  in  his  calling. 

I  frankly  confess  having  had  just  such  experiences  and  I 
owe  it  in  no  small  degree  to  these  very  experiences,  that  I  have 
changed  and  as  I  believe,  come  to  this  higher  conception  of  the 
official  character  attaching  to  our  vocation. 

That  is  to  say,  the  secondary  teacher  who  has  grasped  the 
full  meaning  of  the  social  function  of  the  secondary  school,  will 
find  that  there  is  not  only  no  obstacle  and  no  indignity  in  the 
circumstance  that  we  are  not  only  teachers,  but  officers  also, 
likewise  servants  of  the  state,  but  rather  an  enlargement  and 
enhancement  of  his  personal  dignity.  The  duty  of  coordina- 
tion and  subordination  arising  from  our  official  character,  prop- 
erly understood,  proves  to  be  really  advantageous  to  the  actual 
vocational  activitj^  The  synthesis  of  the  officer  and  teacher 
in  us  is  therefore  not  only  possible,  but  it  implies  an  enhance- 
ment of  our  importance  and  of  our  dignity. 

But  the  realization  of  this  synthesis  does  not  rest  alone  on 
the  foregoing  conception  of  our  offi.cial  character.  The  co- 
ordination with  the  whole,  indispensable  to  the  official  relation, 
is,  in  our  special  case,  adapted  to  elevate  and  advance  us  spir- 
itually only  as  we  constantly  retain  the  consciousness  that  it  is 
our  privilege  and  duty  as  teachers  to  preserve  our  independence. 
Anyone  who  has  worked  out  a  course  of  instruction  and  a 
method  by  which  he  has  been  able  to  enlist  the  interest  of  his 
pupils  and  to  impart  to  them  the  knowledge  and  ability  re- 
quired from  his  subject,  must  permit  no  one  to  interrupt  him 
and  is  obliged  to  defend  himself  against  arbitrary  interference, 
against  petty  and  malicious  grumbling,  if  there  should  be  any 
such.  The  Austrian  Instructions  repeatedly  emphasize  the  fact 
that  the  experienced  teacher  whose  work  has  stood  the  test 
shall  not  be  hampered  in  his  independence.  And  it  would  be 
moral  suicide  if  we  should  permit  our  guaranteed  libert}',  which 
it  is  both  our  privilege  and  our  duty  to  preserve,  to  be  reduced 
and  limited  in  any  way  whatsoever.  When,  for  example,  on 
Education  days,  votes  are  frequently  taken  which  require  definite 
directions  and  ordinances  for  each  and  ever\'  detail,  all  self- 
respecting  men  of  our  profession  should  oppose  it  as  one  man 


The  Secondary  Teacher  25 

and  enter  emphatic  protest.  Such  submissive  slave-natures  may 
be  of  some  use  as  beasts  of  burden  in  certain  departments  of 
the  body  politic,  as  leaders  and  officers,  as  educators  and  teach- 
ers they  are  ruined  once  for  all.  We  should  see  to  it  that  such 
persons  quit  the  profession  or  at  least  observe  a  commendable 
silence  in  our  conventions. 

In  the  actual  operation  of  the  schools  —  let  this  be  said  for 
the  consolation  of  peaceful  natures  —  it  happens  but  rarely  that 
the  scientifically  efficient  and  the  pedagogically  tactful  teacher 
is  required  to  defend  his  independence  and  liberty,  his  right  to 
follow  his  own  method  in  the  classroom,  against  arbitrary  in- 
terference. My  experience  on  this  point  as  given  above  is  an 
incident,  thank  heaven,  that  is  very  exceptional.  Personally 
I  have  not  experienced  anything  approaching  it  in  the  latter 
two-thirds  of  my  service  as  teacher.  I  have  been  permitted  to 
instruct  in  my  own  way  without  molestation  and  kindly  ap- 
preciation has  not  been  entirely  wanting.  Directors  and  In- 
spectors as  a  rule  have  far  too  much  to  do  with  the  multitudes 
of  unsuitable  elements  which  —  especially  in  times  of  dearth  of 
teachers  —  press  into  our  vocation  without  bringing  along  with 
them  the  necessary^  intellectual  and  moral  qualification,  and 
they  are  therefore  glad  to  have  a  number  of  efficient  teachers 
who  can  complaisantly  be  permitted  to  pursue  their  own  course. 
But  it  still  sometimes  happens  that  the  government  meddles  in 
the  filling  of  important  positions.  The  bureaucratic  organiza- 
tion of  matters  pertaining  to  education  rests  upon  the  principle 
that  correct  conduct  and  the  conscientious  discharge  of  con- 
trollable duties  furnish  its  guaranty,  that  actual  personal  effi- 
ciency and  inner  adaptation  to  a  position  of  leadership  are  pres- 
ent. Many  a  man  may  of  course  furnish  a  high  degree  of  pro- 
tection or  comradeship  in  a  certain  position,  to  whom  God  must 
give  understanding  only  after  his  patrons  have  secured  his  office 
for  him.  The  entrance  upon  an  important  position  at  the  same 
time  has  a  tendency  to  produce  a  great  stir,  especially  at  the 
beginning.  The  functional  delight  which  accompanies  the  ex- 
ercises of  the  office  of  authoritj-,  readily  misleads  into  a  vigorous 
exercise  of  the  one  function  and  making  the  other  \try  promi- 
nent. That  is  to  say,  when  fresh  baked  Directors  and  In- 
spectors are  more  than  ordinarily  severe  during  the  first  few 
months  of  their  incumbency,  the  experienced  teacher  consoles 


26  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

himself  with  this  line  from  Eschylus  (Prom.  35)  aTras  he  rpaxv^ 
oaTi<;  dv  veov  Kparfj.  "  And  hard  is  every  one,  who  to  rule  has 
just  begun."  This  soon  wears  off  however  and  things  soon  go 
better.  But  when  tyrannical  pedantry  and  malicious  fault- 
finding is  persistently  spread  abroad,  when  teachers  have  rea- 
son to  feel  that  they  have  suffered  personal  injury  and  that  the 
freedom  of  their  teaching  has  been  infringed  upon,  it  then  be- 
comes their  right  and  duty,  on  the  basis  of  undoubted  and  well 
established  facts,  to  enter  their  vigorous  protest  both  individu- 
ally and  enmasse.  In  such  cases  they  will  likewise  succeed  as 
abundant  experience  proves. 

The  discussions  which  follow  will  explain  these  two  syntheses 
in  detail  and  deduce  from  them  the  resulting  consequences. 
According  to  the  plan  announced  above  we  must  first  of  all 
discuss  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the  secondary  school  as  well  as 
its  social  function.  This  will  reveal  the  various  problems  of  the 
secondary  teacher,  which  we  shall  then  consider  more  closely 
in  detail.  This  will  furnish  the  opportunity,  as  we  have  al- 
ready observed,  not  only  to  deduct  general  principles  but  like- 
wise to  offer  practical  suggestions  directly  applicable  to  the 
actual  work  of  the  school. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE    CHARACTER   AND   THE    PROBLEM    OF    THE 
SECONDARY   SCHOOL 

I.     The  General  Character  of  the  Secondary  School 

IN  the  passionate  controversy,  which  has  been  raging  during 
recent  decades  against  the  existing  organization  of  the  second- 
ary school,  particularly  the  gymnasium,  a  controversy  in  which 
the  indignation  of  the  elders  found  justifiable  expression  equally 
with  the  opinions  of  reputable  men  of  science, —  in  this  con- 
troversy, I  say,  the  real  problem  was  either  entirely  overlooked 
or  discussed  with  utter  inadequacy.  This  is  the  problem: 
Under  the  social,  economic,  political  or,  very  generally  stated, 
under  the  existing  cultural  conditions,  luhat  is  the  problem  of 
the  secondary  school?  What  can  and  shall  a  school  do,  that 
is  intended  to  impart  more  than  an  eleme?itary  education  to 
our  boys  and  girls,  a  school  which  is  to  enable  our  youths  to 
understand  and  solve  the  profound  problems  of  the  agef  I 
may  perhaps  be  permitted  after  thirty  years  of  experience  as 
a  teacher  to  attempt  a  more  exact  and  more  thorough  answer  to 
this  question,  on  the  basis  of  psychological  and  sociological 
principles,  than  has  hitherto  been  given. 

The  first  and  the  most  important  prerequisite  for  us  second- 
ary teachers  is  a  proper  insight  into  the  nature,  the  problem 
and  the  aim  of  the  school  in  which  we  are  engaged.  If  we 
shall  meet  with  any  success  in  realizing  the  two  syntheses  dis- 
cussed in  the  previous  chapter,  and  thus  become  aware  of  our 
individuality,  we  must  first  of  all  understand  the  goal  towards 
which  we  wish  to  lead  our  pupils  in  methodical,  clearly  con- 
scious effort.  This  insight  however  cannot  be  derived  from 
the  mere  practice  of  teaching.  There  are  historical  and  psy- 
chological, general  pedagogical  and  sociological  considerations 
which  cannot  be  set  aside.  In  this  case  theory  can  and  must 
precede  practice  in  order  to  indicate  the  course  to  be  taken. 
This  general,  purely  theoretical  orientation  is  therefore  of  spe- 

27 


28  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

cial  importance  to  the  prospective  teacher  as  well  as  to  the  be- 
ginner in  the  profession. 

The  need  of  more  than  an  elementary  education  for  the  more 
mature  young  people  of  the  higher  classes  has  made  itself  felt 
wherever  cultural  development  has  reached  a  certain  degree 
of  complexity.  During  recent  centuries  this  need  has  led  to 
the  establishment  of  permanent  educational  institutions  which 
are  founded  and  maintained  by  the  state  or  other  corporations. 
To-day  every  civilized  nation  has  institutions  between  the  public 
school,  which  teaches  the  rudiments  of  knowledge  and  skill, 
and  the  university  which  is  devoted  to  the  advancement  of 
scientific  investigation.  Baumeister's  Handbook,  The  Organi- 
zation and  Administration  of  Higher  Education  in  the  Civilized 
States  of  Europe  and  North  America  (Vol.  I,  Div.  2)  con- 
tains a  summary  of  this  class  of  organizations  existing  at  pres- 
ent. Notwithstanding  the  wide  variation  in  the  schedule  of 
studies  the  position  of  the  schools  is  everywhere  the  same. 
They  all  occupy  a  position  betAveen  the  public  school  and  the 
professional  school.  And  in  exact  terminology  therefore  they  are 
"  Intermediate  Schools." 

Having  a  place  above  the  rudiments  of  the  elementary  school, 
and  below  the  special  research  work  of  the  university,  the 
sphere  of  the  "  Intermediate  School  "  (which  we  shall  call  The 
Secondary  School)  is  in  the  field  of  general  education.  We 
are  therefore  occupied  with  the  concept  of  general  education 
which  is  conceived  to  be  the  first  and  most  important  educa- 
tional aim  of  the  secondarj^  school.  We  must  rid  it  of  its  in- 
definiteness,  reduce  it  to  its  elements  and  seek  to  clarify  the 
pedagogic-didactic  nature  of  these  elements. 

2.  *The"II!onceptiom  of  General  Education 

Historico  —  Critical  Analysis 

The  term  "  general  education  "  is  not  only  used  as  a  watch- 
word by  the  laity  and  made  the  basis  for  progressive  reforms, 
but  it  is  likewise  indulged  by  scientific  educators  and  described 
as  a  goal  to  be  realized.  This  concept  has  however  not  yet 
attained  anything  like  the  definiteness  and  universality  of  mean- 
ing which  we  must  require  of  a  scientific  instrument  of  thought. 
The  reason  for  this  lies  first  of  all  in  the  fact  that  the  concept 


I 


The  Character  and  Problem   of  the  Secondary  School      29 

of  education  itself  is  not  precisely  defined.  By  education,  as 
a  rule  we  mean  about  the  same  thing  as  "  knowledge  "  but 
the  original  organic  significance  of  the  term  is  nevertheless 
likewise  present  as  a  sort  of  overtone.  When  we  speak  of 
education,  we  mean  not  only  the  possession  of  certain  knowl- 
edge, but  likewise  a  complete  discipline  and  formation  of 
man's  spiritual  powers.  We  are  no  doubt  thinking  more  par- 
ticulariy  of  intellectual  discipline,  but  it  likewise  involves  a 
certain  development  of  the  emotions  and  a  kind  of  acquired 
self-discipline  of  the  will.  We  expect  of  the  educated  man,-^ 
not  only  a  certain  degree  of  information,  but  likewise  char- 
acteristic interests  and  modes  of  conduct.  We  shall  see  farther 
on  that  this  organic  significance  of  the  term  education  is  of 
profound  importance  for  our  investigation. 

But  the  indefiniteness  of  our  concept  becomes  still  greater 
and  more  intolerable  because  the  adjective  "  general  "  in  our 
combination,  is  taken  in  ven,'  different  senses,  mostly  without 
being  consciously  aware  of  it.  If  we  wish  to  have  a  usable 
concept  of  general  education  we  must  try  to  clear  up  this 
diversity.  It  appears  to  me  therefore  that  as  a  matter  of 
fact  there  are  three  entirely  distinct  modes  of  using  the  term, 
the  constant  blending  of  which  is  responsible  for  the  con- 
fusion. 

The  term  general  refers  first  of  all  to  the  subject  matter  of 
education  or  of  knowledge  and  signifies  the  same  as  "  some- 
thing of  everything."  This  is  general  education  in  the  encyclo- 
pedic sense.  But  general  education  can  likewise  mean  some- 
thing entirely  different,  if  the  adjective  general  refers  no:  to 
the  object,  but  to  the  subject  of  education,  that  is,  not  to  the 
facts,  but  the  men  to  be  educated.  In  that  case  general  educa- 
tion means  the  same  as  the  harmonious  development  of  all  man's 
spiritual  powers.  It  was  in  this  sense  that  the  neo-humanism, 
elaborated  by  Herder  and  William  von  Humboldt,  understood 
the  term.  I  shall  call  this  the  biologico-psychological  concep- 
tion, because  it  refers  the  term,  general  to  the  vital  powers  of 
the  human  organism. 

In  addition  to  these  two  meanings  of  the  term  "  general  " 
there  is  still  another  interpretation  which  has  hitherto  been 
almost  entirely  ignored,  which  has  been  brought  to  our  atten- 
tion through  the  new  science  of  Sociology.     Here   the   term 


30  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

"  general  "  means  what  society  demands  of  all  who  wish  to 
participate  in  its  life.  From  this  point  of  view  general  educa- 
tion implies  the  sum  total  of  social  requirements.  We  shall  call 
this  mode  of  interpretation  the  sociological. 

We  shall  now  have  to  examine  into  the  process  of  the  forma- 
tion of  our  concept  under  these  three  modes  of  the  interpretation 
of  the  adjective  "  general."  We  shall  begin  with  the  last  men- 
tioned, with  the  sociological  mode  of  interpretation,  because, 
in  my  judgment,  it  is  the  most  original  and  primary  even 
though  we  have  been  unaware  of  it.  The  encyclopedic  con- 
ception of  general  education  has  evolved  from  sociological  re- 
quirements, as  I  shall  hope  to  show,  and  the  biologico-psychologic 
conception  has  in  turn  evolved  from  the  encyclopedic.  It  will 
then  be  possible  on  the  basis  of  this  historico-critical  analysis, 
undertaken  in  the  sense  indicated  from  the  elements  of  these 
various  concepts  which  are  still  active,  to  reach  an  interpreta- 
tion of  general  education  corresponding  to  the  needs  of  the 
present  time. 

A.     General  Education  in  the  Sociological  Sense 

Wherever,  under  civilized  conditions,  an  active  mental  and 
social  life  is  evolved  there  results  an  educated  social  class.  This 
class  imposes  certain  requirements  upon  every  individual  who 
wishes  to  become  a  member  of  the  group,  participate  in  the 
life  of  the  community  and  receive  recognition  in  it.  These  re- 
quirements are,  as  a  matter  of  course,  nowhere  precisely  formu- 
lated, but  still  sufficiently  well  understood  by  all  that  they 
govern  their  own  conduct,  and  especially  the  matters  pertain- 
ing to  the  education  and  instruction  of  their  children,  according 
to  it.  We  desire  certain  facts  and  accomplishments,  we  pre- 
suppose an  interest  in  certain  definite  things,  we  insist  upon  a 
specific  kind  of  individual  and  social  forms.  The  sum-total 
of  these  social  requirements  constitute  general  education  in  the 
sociological  sense.  The  content  of  these  requirements  naturally 
varies  in  the  different  periods  of  civilization.  It  is  one  thing 
in  the  Athens  of  fifth  and  fourth  centuries  B.  c.  and  quite  dif- 
ferent in  Rome  during  the  period  of  the  empire.  Here,  e.g.,  the 
knowledge  of  a  foreign  language,  that  of  the  Greeks,  enters 
into  the  content  of  general  education.     During  the  period  of 


The  Character  and  Problem   of  the  Secondary  School      31 

humanism  and  the  renaissance  both  the  ancient  languages  and 
an  appreciation  of  plastic  art  are  the  most  essential  requirements. 
In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  mathematical,  scien- 
tific and  especially  philosophical  problems  constitute  the  subject 
matter  of  conversation  in  the  French  Salons.  In  the  latter  half 
of  the  eighteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
general  education  again  assumes  a  more  aesthetic  cast.  In  the 
first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  historical  came  strongly 
to  the  front  in  Germany,  whilst  in  the  second  half  science  and 
technique  gradually  began  to  be  elements  of  general  education. 

The  one  element  which  is  relatively  the  most  constant  is  the 
requirement  of  a  correct  and  acceptable  use  of  the  mother 
tongue  and  an  acquaintance  with  the  chief  works  of  polite 
literature. 

Such  a  sociological  conception  of  general  education  has  existed 
for  more  than  two  thousand  years.  In  proof  of  this  assertion 
permit  me  to  submit  a  passage  from  the  "  Protagoras  "  of 
Plato,  which  likewise  seems  to  me  in  other  ways  to  illustrate 
this  sociological  phase  of  our  concept  very  clearly.  The  pas- 
sage is  found  in  the  third  chapter  of  the  dialogue  (p.  312  b). 
A  brief  recapitulation  of  what  precedes  it  is  necessary  to  an 
understanding  of  the  passage.  The  studious,  enthusiastic  young 
aristocrat,  Hippocrates,  comes  to  Socrates  very  early  in  the 
morning  and  invites  him  to  visit  the  renowned  Sophist  Protag- 
oras who  is  now  staying  in  Athens,  that  he  might  gain  some  in- 
formation from  him.  Socrates  asks  him  what  it  is  that  he 
would  like  to  learn  from  Protagoras,  and  explains  the  meaning 
of  his  question  by  two  examples.  "  Let  us  assume,"  he  remarks, 
"  that  you  wished  to  apply  to  your  cousin  of  the  name,  the 
renowned  physician  of  Coos  for  instruction,  what  would  be 
your  purpose?"  Hippocrates  answers,  "I  would  do  this  in 
case  I  wished  to  become  a  physician."  "  And  if  you  should 
go  to  Phidias  or  to  Polycleitus?  "  "  Then  I  should  wish  to  be- 
come a  sculptor."  "  What  then  is  the  vocation  of  Protagoras?  " 
Socrates  further  inquires.  "  They  call  him  one  of  the  sophists." 
"  But  would  you  not  hesitate  to  acknowledge  to  all  Greece  that 
you  wish  to  become  a  sophist?  "  "  I  frankly  confess,  yes,  if  I  am 
to  speak  truly,  what  I  think."  To  this  Socrates  remarks  — 
and  now  comes  the  important  passage  (see  vol.  I,  p.  112)  to 
which  we  refer  —  as  follows:     "Perhaps  you  do  not  regard 


32  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

Protagoras'  instruction  in  this  light  (as  in  the  two  examples 
given),  but  perhaps  after  the  manner  of  the  instruction  of  the 
grammarian,  the  musician  and  of  the  trainer.  The  learning 
acquired  from  these  was  not  intended  as  professional  learning 
with  a  view  to  preparing  you  for  some  definite  profession,  but 
only  as  a  part  of  general  education,  and  because  a  gentleman  and 
a  freeman  ought  to  know  them?  " 

The  passage  is  interesting  first  of  all  as  a  bit  of  the  history  of 
civilization,  because  we  here  discover  for  the  first  time  the 
conception  of  general  education.  But  it  is  likewise  materially 
significant  because  the  simplicity  and  impartiality  peculiar  to 
the  Greek  mind  bring  it  to  pass  that  the  most  important  elements 
of  our  concept  are  here  presented  with  extraordinary  clearness 
and  force.  The  language  "  because  a  gentleman  and  a  freeman 
ought  to  know  them  "  clearly  implies  that  general  education 
is  a  social  requirement.  Furthermore  general  education  is  here 
very  definitely  distinguished  from  specialized  and  vocational  edu- 
cation. But  the  content  of  the  social  requirements,  if  we  sub- 
ject the  passage  to  a  little  analysis,  offers  important  and  valu- 
able suggestions,  and  thus  indicates  again  that  the  German  neo- 
humanism  was  still  not  so  far  in  the  wrong  when  it  insisted  that 
the  intensive  study  of  Greek  thought  is  of  the  highest  value  for 
modern  education. 

Let  us  examine  the  content  of  these  requirements  more  closely. 
The  pupils  did  not  simply  learn  to  read  and  write  from  the 
grammarian ;  they  likewise  became  acquainted  with  the  poetry 
of  the  fatherland  and  memorized  many  passages  from  Homer 
and  Hesiod,  and  later  also  from  Pindar  and  the  tragedians. 
We  thus  observe  that  the  correct  use  of  the  mother  tongue 
and  acquaintance  with  the  chief  works  in  its  literature  belong  to 
the  oldest  and  most  fundamental  elements  of  general  education. 
If  we  in  Germany  still  insist  with  perfect  right  on  the  intensive 
study  of  the  German  language  and  literature  in  the  intermediate 
school,  we  are  simply  returning  to  the  principle  which  to  the 
Greeks  was  self-evident.  The  progress  of  civilization  has 
revealed  the  fact  that  for  many  centuries  foreign  languages  and 
literatures  constituted  a  more  important  part  of  general  educa- 
tion, but  these  same  Greeks  can  teach  us  that  the  most  elemen- 
tary requirement  involves  the  cultivation  of  the  native  tongue. 
The  musician  arouses  the  soul  and  imparts  aesthetic  education, 


The  Character  and  Problem   of  the  Secondary  School      33 

which  is  at  present  very  properly  coming  into  the  foreground 
again.  And  finally  the  fact  that  in  Greece  the  trainer  dared 
not  be  wanting  is  a  most  emphatic  witness  to  the  importance 
of  physical  development.  The  modern  period  is  even  in  this 
respect  reverting  to  what  the  Greeks  could  and  should  have 
taught  us  long  since. 

Hence  if  we  follow  the  evolution  of  the  sociological  moment, 
so  clearly  evinced  in  the  passage  quoted,  we  will  discover  im- 
portant phases  of  our  concept  which  would  otherwise  have 
escaped  us.  From  this  point  of  view  general  education  appears 
as  a  social  requirement.  The  acquirement  of  knowledge  and 
of  education  which  we  are  disposed  to  regard  as  a  matter  to  be 
left  to  the  choice  and  caprice  of  the  individual  thus  assumes  the 
imperative  aspect  characteristic  of  all  social  requirements  and 
hence  a  social  duty.  This  duty  demands  that  the  individual 
meet  the  requirements  imposed  by  society  to  the  limit  of  his  abil- 
ity. But  it  at  the  same  time  holds  society  responsible  for  giving 
the  individual  a  chance  to  discharge  this  duty.  Inasmuch  there- 
fore as  the  social  evolution  constantly  tends  to  make  the  state 
the  commander  of  society,  the  state  finds  itself  under  the  ne- 
cessity not  only  to  make  possible  the  establishment  of  the  schools 
involved  in  the  requirements  of  general  education,  but  like- 
wise to  use  its  full  authority  in  enforcing  their  establishment. 
The  principle  of  compulsory^  school  attendance  which  has  in 
recent  times  become  a  law  in  almost  every  civilized  nation  is  a 
result  of  this  development,  to  the  gradual  realization  of  which 
the  most  varied  social,  economic,  political  and  military  factors 
have  contributed. 

Hitherto  the  principle  of  general  compulsory  school  attend- 
ance has  been  limited  to  the  elementary  subjects  and  accomplish- 
ments taught  in  the  public  schools,  but  almost  ever>^vhere  the 
state  has  likewise  taken  the  higher  general  education  of  certain 
classes  of  the  social  body  in  hand,  and  thus  recognized  its  im- 
perative character.  Historical  evolution  furthermore  reveals 
the  fact  that  the  social  class  on  which  society  imposes  the  intel- 
lectual requirements,  described  by  the  term  general  education, 
has  constantly  been  increasing.  We  see  particularly  at  the 
present  time  that  the  economically  weaker  portion  of  the  popu- 
lation, the  laboring  class,  is  constantly  striving  for  higher  edu- 
cation.    To  meet  these  needs,  the  various  nations  have  begun  to 


34  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

extend  the  privileges  of  the  advanced  school,  and  the  organiza- 
tions for  popular  education  arising  therefrom  constitute  the 
palpable  justification  for  this  extension.  It  follows  from  this, 
that  the  higher  general  education  is  increasingly  felt  as  a  social 
duty,  and  that  the  need  of  discharging  this  duty  is  constantly 
spreading. 

To  us  intermediate  teachers  this  first  result  of  the  sociological 

-,  interpretation  of  our  concept  is  very  significant.     If  we  are 

/   imparting  general  education  to  our  pupils,  we  are  not  simply 

(      training  them  intellectually  and  esthetically,  but  likewise  ethi- 

\  cally.     And  this  at  once  gives  our  efforts  an  essentially  spiritual 

jaspect  and  a  profounder  meaning.     We  are  helping  our  pupils 

/  to  realize  one  of  their  most  important  social  obligations,  and  our 

(    own  position  in  the  social  organism  thus  becomes  vastly  more 

'"^  significant. 

The  content  of  the  requirements  which  society  imposes  on  the 
individual  in  this  respect  not  only  varies  with  the  different 
epochs  of  culture,  but  it  likewise  varies  in  the  same  period  in 
different  classes  of  society.  But  notwithstanding  this  the  socio- 
logical mode  of  interpretation  is  not  wholly  useless  for  the  con- 
tent of  general  education.  We  observe  first  of  all  that  certain 
requirements  show  a  constant  tendency  to  recur,  and  thus  become 
constant  elements  of  general  education.  This  is  especially  true 
of  the  linguistic  and  aesthetic  elements  of  education.  A  knowl- 
edge of  language  and  its  elements,  the  correct  and  generally 
chaste  use  of  the  same  in  conversation  together  with  acquaintance 
with  masterpieces  of  literature  have  been  the  criteria  of  educa- 
tion for  more  than  two  thousand  years.  Among  the  Greeks,  as 
a  matter  of  course,  it  was  the  mastery  of  the  native  tongue  that 
was  regarded  essential;  among  the  Romans,  the  Greek  in  ad- 
dition to  their  own  language;  during  the  middle  ages,  and  the 
humanistic  period,  a  knowledge  of  the  Latin  was  regarded  as 
the  indispensable  requirement.  In  the  modern  period  even  to 
the  present  time  there  has  been  almost  a  universal  return  to 
the  native  tongue,  that  the  clearest  distinction  between  the  edu- 
cated andf  the  uneducated  is  still  correct  and  choice  mode  of 
speech.  We  may  say  therefore  that  linguistic  education,  and 
at  present  especially  the  mother  tongue  undoubtedly  belongs; 
to  the  social  requirements  which  we  regard  as  the  elements  of, 
general  education  and  which  must  be  treated  accordingly  in  our 


The  Character  and  Problem   of  the  Secondary  School      35 

educational  institutions.  The  extent  to  which  foreign  languages 
come  under  this  classification  cannot  be  shown  directly  by  the 
sociological  mode  of  interpretation.  The  social  requirements 
in  this  respect  have  been  too  varied,  as  Zielinski  observes,  to 
evolve  a  principle  favorable  to  the  ancient  languages. 

In  addition  to  the  linguistic  and  aesthetic  education  there 
soon  arises  a  desire  for  a  knowledge  of  things.  There  is  an 
evident  tendency  to  foster  all  forms  of  knowledge  worth  know- 
ing, i.e.,  to  offer  them.  The  speech  of  the  linguistically  edu- 
cated man  will  be  rich  in  proportion  to  his  knowledge  of  facts 
and  things.  The  orator,  the  lawyer,  the  historian,  the  philoso- 
pher, above  all  the  generally  educated  man  is  expected  to 
know  a  little  of  everything.  Society  is  naturally  less  concerned 
about  the  thoroughness  than  about  breadth  of  information, 
and  the  possession  and  command  of  useful  knowledge.  Just 
as  soon  therefore,  as  the  sociological  requirement  extends  beyond 
linguistic  and  aesthetic  education  to  knowledge  about  things,  it 
produces  a  new  conception  of  general  education.  The  impera- 
tive moment  naturally  persists,  but  the  object  of  the  requirement 
assumes  a  more  concrete,  and  definite  form.  Every  educated 
man  is  expected  to  know  a  little  of  everything,  and  thus  the 
encyclopedic  character  of  general  education  is  evolved,  to  the 
discussion  of  which  we  now  proceed. 

B.     The  Encyclopedic  Theory 

The  name,  and  the  idea  of  encyclopedic  education  arose 
in  antiquity.  A  course  of  study  for  the  education  of  the  young 
which  came  into  general  use  seems  to  have  been  evolved  in 
Athens,  and  in  other  parts  of  Greece  as  well  about  the  fourth 
century  B.  C.  Thus  Plutarch,  e.g.,  in  his  life  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  relates  the  fact  that  King  Philipp  refused  to  limit  his 
son's  training  to  music  and  the  customary  education  ra  lyKVKkia 
TraiBev/xaTa  of  the  time,  but  that  he  wished  to  furnish  him  with 
a  discipline  suited  to  his  individuality,  and  hence  called  Aristotle 
to  the  position  of  tutor  to  his  son.  (Pub.  Alex.  C.  7.)  Aris- 
totle also  uses  the  word  iyKVKXia  repeatedly  in  the  sense  of  cus- 
tomary, general  practice,  and  in  reference  to  spiritual  things  as 
well.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  he  speaks  of  iyKVKXia  <f>iXo(TO(f)7]fiaTa 
meaning  philosophical  doctrines  which  have  been  widely  dis- 


36  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

seminated  and  found  general  acceptance.  During  the  Hellenistic 
period  the  subjects  which  had  been  generally  introduced  in  the 
education  of  the  young  were  organized  into  a  system  and  called 
lyKVKXia  TraiSivfiara,  iyKVKXios  TratSeta  which  later  gave  rise  to 
the  compound  word  ey/cuKAoTratSeta  (Encyclopedia).  Here  it  is 
clearly  evident  that  the  word  stands  for  a  definite  list  of  the 
sciences  which  comprehend  everything  worth  knowing.^ 

But  this  encyclopedic  education  was  still  for  a  long  time  re- 
garded as  the  prerogative  of  the  freeman.  It  is  an  adornment 
of  the  mind  and  not  intended  to  serve  any  practical  end.  The 
"  Arts  "  of  which  it  consists  are  called  the  "  liberal  arts."  They 
are  also  regarded  as  a  kind  of  preparatory  training  which  is 
intended  to  precede  the  strictly  scientific,  i.e.,  the  philosophic, 
education  as  well  as  actual  vocational  education. 

But  it  loses  this  character  in  later  antiquity  and  the  middle 
ages.  The  content  of  encyclopedic  education  becomes  fixed. 
It  consists  of  the  seven  liberal  arts,  classified  as  elementary  and 
scientific.  The  elementary  division  is  called  Trivium  and  em- 
braces Grammar,  Dialectics,  and  Rhetoric;  the  more  advanced 
division  is  called  the  Quadrivium  and  consists  of  Arithmetic, 
Geometry,  Music  and  Astronomy. 

We  discover  attempts  at  organizing  the  sum  total  of  en- 
cyclopedic knowledge  into  a  series  of  text  books  for  the  use  of 
the  schools  even  among  the  Romans.  Varro,  the  contemporary 
of  Cicero,  wrote  his  disciplinarum  libri  novem,  containing  the 
encyclopedic  education  of  his  age,  with  this  end  in  view.  He 
adds  medicine  and  architecture  to  the  seven  liberal  arts.  Celsus 
and  Appuleius  wrote  similar  compendiums,  and  St.  Augustine 
made  plans  for  the  production  of  a  great  encyclopedia,  only  a 
few  parts  of  which  however  came  to  completion.  Marcian 
Capella's  (about  425  A.  D.)  text  book,  bearing  the  title  Satiricon 
libri  IX ,  was  in  use  throughout  the  entire  middle  age  period. 
(Cf.  Willman,  Didaktik,  4  Ed.  p.  128.)      During  the  middle 

1  Vitruvius  describes  this  encyclopedic  conception  of  education  very 
clearly  as  follows:  "It  may  well  be  that  the  inexperienced  are  aston- 
ished at  the  fact  that  the  human  mind  is  capable  of  mastering  such  a 
large  number  of  sciences  and  retain  them  in  memory.  But  if  they  have 
observed  that  all  these  branches  are  vitally  related  and  connected,  this 
possibility  will  be  more  readily  understood.  For  encyclopedic  education 
is  analogous  to  a  body  which  comprises  these  members." 


The  Character  and  Problem   of  the  Secondary  School      37 

ages  the  system  based  on  the  seven  Hberal  arts  attained  a  sort 
of  canonical  authority.  The  number  seven  is  frequently  de- 
scribed as  the  symbol  of  perfection,  the  arts  and  their  system 
graphically  illustrated  and  arranged  in  mnemonic  verses.  Will- 
man,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  these  data,  observes:  "  The 
ancient  title,  '  artes  liberales  '  is  retained  but  its  relation  to  the 
education  of  free  citizens  is  lost."  Following  the  method  of 
Cassiodorus,  liberalis  is  derived  from  liber,  book,  and  the  artes 
are  therefore  construed  as  book  sciences.  [Didaktik  4  173  f.) 
Of  the  seven  liberal  arts  the  first  three  comprised  under  the 
name  Trivium  are  by  far  the  most  important.  Ever}'one  who 
is  to  correctly  understand  and  expound  the  Holy  Scriptures 
and  the  Church  Fathers,  as  well  as  those  whose  duty  require 
them  to  produce  the  evidences  for  the  truth  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  church  in  the  numerous  Disputations,  had  to  be  disciplined 
in  Grammar,  Dialectic  and  Rhetoric.  But  many  of  the  com- 
pendiums  of  the  middle  ages  likewise  include  the  real  sciences, 
not  even  only  those  of  the  Quadrivium.  The  lack  of  books 
made  such  encyclopedias  exceedingly  valuable,  and,  in  the  state 
of  the  sciences  at  that  period,  they  were  possible  and  practical. 
During  the  period  of  humanism  and  the  renaissance  the 
encyclopedic  character  of  education  at  first  fell  into  the  back- 
ground. The  Roman  orators  and  poets  were  read  and  studied 
with  a  view  to  acquiring  the  ability  of  Latin  oratory  and  versifi- 
cation. An  opposition  to  the  Aristotelian  scholastic  logic  like- 
wise arose  and  it  was  thought  the  art  of  persuasion  and  proof 
could  be  acquired  and  taught  better  from  Cicero.  But  this  did 
not  last  long.  The  improvement  in  economic  conditions  and  the 
increasing  significance  of  citizenship  together  with  many  other 
circumstances  gave  rise  to  a  constantly  growing  desire  for  a 
fuller  practical  education  of  the  young.  The  attempt  was  there- 
fore made  to  impart  a  large  amount  of  practical  information,  for 
the  most  part  poorly  arranged,  by  means  of  the  instruction  in 
Latin  which  was  still  regarded  as  an  indispensable  requisite  for 
the  educated  man.  The  "  Orbis  Pictus  "  and  the  "  Janua  lingu- 
arum  reserata  "  of  Amos  Comenius  are  in  fact  nothing  more 
than  little  encyclopedias  designed  to  furnish  youth  with  the 
matters  of  greatest  consequence  about  the  world  and  life.  The 
famous  polyhistorian,  Daniel  George  Morhoff,  even  undertook 
to  give  a  kind  of  encyclopedia  or  polymathy,  as  it  was  called,  a 


38  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

philosophical  and  psychological  basis  by  directing  attention  to 
the  organic  relation  and  unity  of  science,  as  well  as  to  a  vital 
impulse  in  human  nature  (a  op(xrj  irpo'i  -n-avTa  fxaOrjfiaTa) ,  which 
inspires  everyone  with  a  desire  for  all  human  knowledge.  (Cf. 
Heubaum,  History  of  German  Education^  I,  p.  28.) 

After  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  increasing 
differentiation  of  vocation  and  the  rise  of  an  aristocratic  state 
in  Germany  emphasized  the  need  of  different  preparation  for 
the  different  classes  and  vocations.  Heubaum  has  shown  this 
very  clearly  in  the  work  just  cited.  Academies  for  the  nobility 
and,  in  addition  to  the  Latin  schools  still  maintained  in  the 
cities,  schools  for  the  poor  and  the  peasant  class  of  the  rural 
districts  were  founded.  The  element  of  utility  in  education 
received  greater  stress  than  previously,  without  however  losing 
its  encyclopedic  character. 

And  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  neohumanisms  for  which  Shafts- 
bury,  Rollin  Gesner,  Ernesti  and  Heyne  prepared  the  way  and 
which  was  reduced  to  a  working  system  by  Herder,  Fr.  Aug. 
Wolf  and  William  von  Humboldt,  the  educational  ideal  of 
which  we  shall  presently  discuss,  did  not  completely  break  with 
the  encyclopedic  education.  Ernesti,  the  philologist,  published 
his  Initia  doctrinae  solidioris  in  the  j'^ear  1755,  a  distinctively 
encyclopedic  textbook  which  was  used  in  the  Gymnasia  for  a  long 
time.  Even  though  the  ancient  languages  constituted  the  pre- 
dominant part  of  the  German  gymnasial  curriculum  until  in  the 
seventies  of  the  nineteenth  century,  so  many  other  subjects 
were  nevertheless  gradually  introduced  that  their  educational 
system  again  assumed  an  encyclopedic  character.  At  present  this 
is  far  more  the  case  in  the  various  kinds  of  higher  schools.  The 
discussions  of  school  reform,  which  have  been  vigorously  in- 
dulged in  recent  years,  contain  frequent  mention  of  new  sub- 
jects which  should  find  a  place  in  the  intermediate  school,  on  the 
ground  that  they  belong  to  a  general  education. 

But  on  the  other  hand  we  must  not  forget  that,  owing  to  the 
unprecedented  increase  of  knowledge,  especially  as  produced 
during  the  nineteenth  century,  an  actually  encyclopedic  educa- 
tion is  becoming  more  and  more  impossible.  At  present  even 
the  scholar,  speaking  generally,  can  thoroughly  master  but  a 
single  division  of  his  subject  and  every  attempt  at  comprehend- 
ing the  whole  field  of  knowledge  must  now  be  pronounced  a 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School      39 

failure  from  the  start.  We  must  therefore  say  frankly  and 
unequivocally  once  for  all:  General  education  in  the  en- 
cyclopedic sense  is  an  utter  impossibility  and  the  proposition  of 
making  such  a  conception  the  aim  of  the  intermediate  school 
is  an  absurdity  which  must  be  set  aside.  The  much  quoted  saying 
of  Heraclitus  is  especially  pertinent  at  this  point:  "  Polymathy 
does  not  discipline  the  mind."  {TroXvixadirj  voov  ov  StSao-Kct.) 
Every  effort  to  formulate  our  course  of  study  according  to  the 
encyclopedic  idea  must  of  necessity  lead  to  an  intolerable  over- 
burdening of  the  course  and  at  the  same  time  to  a  reckless  super- 
ficiality. 

But  since  the  enc3xlopedic  conception  of  general  education 
has  persisted  with  great  tenacit}^  for  more  than  two  thousand 
years  notwithstanding  these  facts,  and  the  fact  that  the  desire 
to  know  everything  which  man  has  ever  known  is  still 
indulged  by  many  men  would  seem  to  indicate  that  this  con- 
ception must  rest  upon  some  deeper  basis  still.  There  seems  to 
be  something  in  the  nature  of  man  that  impels  him  with  a  de- 
sire to  experience  everything  which  the  human  race  has  ever 
experienced.  Goethe  has  given  an  intimation  of  what  this  is 
in  Faust,  a  sort  of  revelation  of  concentrated  man: 

"  And  all  that  has  been  vouchsafed  to  all  mankind, 
I  would  in  mine  inmost  self  enjoy. 
In  my  own  mind  conceive  the  heights  and  depths, 
Collect  its  weal  and  woe  within  my  bosom 
And  thus  expand  my  own  self  to  comprehend  the  All." 

A  human  being  is  not  merely  a  microcosm,  a  world  in  minia- 
ture, he  is  likewise  a  miniature  copy  of  the  human  race.  Each 
one  of  us  bears  the  impress  of  the  milleniums  of  spiritual  strug- 
gle in  the  form  of  spiritual  precipitates.  Everyone  feels  a  vital 
relationship  with  everj^thing  which  man  has  ever  thought,  felt  or 
desired  and  has  an  impulse  to  knov\^  and  to  repeat  in  his  own 
experience  all  these  things.  The  force  of  this  experience  is 
most  fully  and  clearly  felt  by  the  more  richly  endowed,  but 
each  one  of  us  wishes,  at  least  unconsciously,  that  nothing  hu- 
man shall  remain  unknown  to  him. 

Our  ego  is  a  unity,  perhaps  indeed  the  primar\'  image  of  all 
unities,  the  correlate  of  which  we  presume  to  discover  or  seek 
to  produce  in  things  and  in  the  universe.  But  our  ego  is  not 
an  element,  it  is  not  an  atom.     It  is  rather  the  psychical  expres- 


40  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

sion  of  our  centralized  organization  capable  of  producing  an 
infinite  variety  of  functions.  These  functions  tend  to  become 
active  and  it  may  well  be  that  the  functional  impulses  thus 
evolved  are  the  ultimate  and  primary  source  of  the  yearning 
for  general  education.  This  yearning  however  is  not  merely 
concerned  with  the  multiplicity  of  facts,  but,  consistently  with 
the  nature  of  our  ego,  the  unity  in  the  multiplicity.  It  is  in 
this  sense  that  Morhof  seems  to  have  construed  encyclopedic 
education  as  a  unity  of  all  the  sciences.  We  find  the  same  idea 
more  profoundly  elaborated  by  Fichte  in  his  "  Proposed  Plan 
for  the  Founding  of  a  Higher  Institution  of  Learning  at  Berlin." 
He  here  insists  that  every  professor  should  first  of  all  publish 
an  encyclopedia  of  the  matter  within  his  department  and  that 
the  several  encyclopedias  be  arranged  as  one  uniform  philosophi- 
cal encyclopedia.  "  For  the  several  encyclopedias  of  the  differ- 
ent departments,  elaborated  to  the  greatest  attainable  clearness, 
are  first  of  all  constituent  members  of  the  general  encyclopedia 
of  philosophy.  This  is  especially  true  if  both  the  teachers  and 
the  pupils  are  acquainted  with  all  of  them.  They  will  like- 
wise serve  as  a  great  stimulus  to  the  former  and  render  the 
latter  comprehensible,  once  it  is  established,  because  they  will 
also  receive  renewed  authentication  and  clearness  from  it. 
Hence  it  follows  that  unity  and  the  interpretation  of  reality  from 
a  single  viewpoint  constitutes  the  ver}^  nature  of  the  philosophy 
and  of  the  technique  for  which  we  are  striving.  Unrelated 
multiplicity  and  singularity  without  any  coordination  whatso- 
ever on  the  other  hand  is  unphilosophical,  confused  and  awk- 
ward. This  we  should  like  to  banish  entirely  from  the  earth." 
(Fichte,  Werke  VIII,   127  f.;  Spranger,  31  f.) 

Hegel's  Encyclopedia  of  Philosophy  is  also  a  kind  of  com- 
pendium of  knowledge  which  is  intended  to  form  a  unity  by 
means  of  a  uniform  dialectical  method  of  developing  the  con- 
cepts. But  all  these  efforts  to  reduce  encyclopedia  to  objective 
unity  go  to  pieces  in  the  constantly  increasing,  practically  im- 
measurable wealth  of  knowledge  and  the  increasing  differentia- 
tion in  the  methods  of  investigation. 

Man's  undoubted  native  desire  for  universal  knowledge  can 
never  be  satisfied  with  a  mere  accumulation  of  facts.  It  is  pos- 
sible, as  a  matter  of  course,  to  introduce  him  objectively  to  a 
vast  amount  and  well  arranged  material,  but  this  will  not 


,1' 

\ 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School      41 

inspire  his  spiritual  powers  to  fruitful  exercise  and  bring  them 
into  unitary  consistency.  Our  educational  concept  must  there- 
fore not  be  sought  in  things  but  in  the  man  who  is  to  be  educated. 
The  path  leads  from  within  outward  and  not  from  without  in- 
ward. Our  classical  poets  and  thinkers,  particularly  Herder, 
Goethe,  Schiller  and  William  von  Humboldt,  have  elaborated 
an  ideal  of  education  for  us  in  harmony  with  this  principle  of 
orientation.  We  have  thus  arrived  at  the  third  conception  of 
general  education  suggested  above  which  will  probably  also  be 
the  most  important  for  our  constructive  synthesis. 

C.     The  Biologico-Psychological  Theory  of  General 
Education 

Here  the  term  "  general  "  receives  an  entirely  different  mean- 
ing. It  no  longer  means  what  society  requires,  and  still  less 
does  it  correspond  to  "  something  of  everything."  "  General  " 
is  here  wholly  restricted  to  the  spiritual  nature  of  man.  The 
whole  of  man's  nature  is  to  be  taken  into  account,  not  merely  a 
single  phase,  the  understanding  for  example.  All  the  latent 
powers  of  man  shall  rather  be  quickened  and  developed.  The 
whole  man  is  to  be  so  trained  and  "  educated  "  as  to  produce 
an  enriched  and  well-balanced  personality,  with  an  appreciative 
capacity  for  everj^thing  which  transpires  in  the  realm  of  heart 
and  mind.  But  the  new  aspect  of  the  concept  "  education  "  is 
even  more  important  than  this  change  in  the  meaning  of  the 
term  "  general."  Drill  and  training  with  a  view  to  external 
ends  no  longer  constitute  the  essence  of  education.  It  is  not 
a  matter  of  forcefully  filling  the  soul  by  the  process  of  a  dead 
cramming  of  the  memorj'.  Education  means  organic  develop- 
ment and  a  growth  from  within.  This  new  concept  of  educa- 
tion may  indeed  be  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  spirit  of  the 
German  language,  to  have  been  formulated  by  the  most  cul- 
tured minds  of  the  German  nation  for  the  German  people  for 
the  salvation  of  all  mankind.  If  vre  read  in  the  much-quoted 
work  of  Paulsen  or  still  better  in  his  article  on  "  Education  "  in 
Rein's  Encyclopedia  (I,  414  ff. )  what  changes  of  the  educational 
ideal,  what  profound  culture  movement  was  produced  by  this 
spiritualized  organic  conception  of  education  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  eighteenth  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century, 


42  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

we  will  see  that  a  permanent  step  of  progress  in  the  evolution 
of  the  human  race  is  here  prepared. 

The  stimulus  to  this  reconstruction  however  came  from 
France.  In  his  "  Emile  "  Rousseau  had  issued  the  call  to  re- 
turn to  nature  and  pleaded  with  a  fiery  enthusiasm  for  an 
education  according  to  nature.  But  the  thing  for  which  Rous- 
seau appealed  with  passionate  persuasiveness  was  first  cast  into 
permanent  form  and  developed  to  a  living  fact  in  Germany. 
Pestalozzi,  the  Philanthropists  and  Herhart  made  education 
from  within  the  fundamental  principle  of  elementary  education 
and  thus  created  the  modern  public  school.  By  theory  and 
practice  these  men  laid  the  foundation  of  a  public  school  peda- 
gogy which  has  developed  wonderfully  and  beneficently  during 
the  course  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  principle  indeed  in 
the  course  of  time  became  a  sort  of  a  dead  letter  of  routine 
method,  but  the  majority  of  the  public  school  teachers  of 
Germany  and  Austria  are  nevertheless  more  secure  in  their 
method  and  more  definite  in  their  aim  because  of  their  posses- 
sion of  a  method  of  instruction  than  the  teachers  of  the  inter- 
mediate schools.  And  they  are  likewise  more  open  to  progres- 
sive didactic  stimuli,  as  is  evident  from  the  interest  in  the 
experimental  didactics  in  the  public  schools  inaugurated  by  Lay 
and  Meumann. 

The  educational  theory  elaborated  by  the  German  neohuman- 
ists  dominates  the  higher  schools  and  thus  the  entire  culture 
movement  among  the  intellectual  leaders  of  the  German  people. 
The  new  ideal  of  education  and  the  whole  movement  have  often 
been  described.  Thus  especially  by  Paulsen  in  the  passages 
referred  to  above  and  likewise  in  Ziegler's  History  of  Pedagogy, 
3d  edition,  p.  266  if.  After  calling  attention  to  these  treatises 
I  will  simply  indicate  the  essential  features  and  call  special 
attention  to  several  factors  which  seem  to  me  to  have  been 
somewhat  neglected  hitherto. 

Neohumanism  is  not  based  alone  on  the  new  evolution  of 
ancient  art  and  poetry,  anticipated  by  Shaftesbury  and  Rollin, 
philologically  established  by  Gesner,  Ernesti  and  Heyne  and 
inaugurated  especially  by  Winckelmann  and  Lessing,  but  like- 
wise on  a  profounder  psychological  insight  into  the  nature  and 
function  of  the  human  mind.  This  is  clearly  apparent  in  John 
G.  Herder,  the  man  who  was  the  first  to  grasp  the  new  ideal 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School      43 

of  education  in  its  full  breadth  and  depth,  and  made  the 
largest  contributions  to  its  formulation  and  dissemination. 
Herder  is  preeminently  a  psychologist,  and  a  psychologist  more- 
over whose  importance  for  this  science  has  not  even  yet  been 
appreciated  fully.  According  to  Herder  the  human  organism 
is  a  unity  in  which  the  physical  and  the  psychical  vitally  inter- 
penetrate in  mutual  interaction.  P'or  him  life  is  spirit  and 
spirit  is  life.  In  this  respect  he  is  closely  related  to  our  modern 
biologists,  the  so-called  psycho-vitalists.  He  regards  Leibnitz's 
theory  of  preestablished  harmony,  which  has  no  room  for  the 
idea  of  interpenetration  but  simply  a  parallelism  of  the  physical 
and  the  psychical,  as  utterly  incomprehensible.  ("Concerning 
Knowledge  and  Experience,"  Works,  Ed.  1853,  Vol.  31, 
12  ff. )  ^  "  According  to  my  limited  observation  it  is  impossible 
to  speak  of  psjcholog}'  which  is  not  at  cvtry  step  definite  physi- 
olog)^  H  aller 's  phj^siology  elevated  to  the  rank  of  psychology 
and  endov.ed  with  mind  like  Pygmalion's  statue, —  then  we 
will  be  in  position  to  speak  of  thought  and  knowledge."  (Op. 
cit.,  p.  17.)  Besides  this  Herder's  psychology  is  not  in  the 
least  intellectualistic  —  in  which  he  is  also  quite  modern.  Ac- 
cording to  him  the  nature  of  man  consists  far  more  in  the 
quality  and  intensity  of  his  feeling  and  will.  "  The  inward- 
ness, depth  and  extent  with  which  we  receive,  elaborate  and 
propagate  emotional  impressions  is  what  makes  us  either  the 
profound  or  shallow  natures  which  we  are.  Causes  are  fre- 
quently located  below  the  diaphragm  which  we  erroneously  and 
laboriously  seek  to  find  in  the  head.  Hence  the  idea  can  never 
arise  without  the  previous  experience  in  its  natural  place.  The 
extent  of  our  participation  in  the  things  of  our  environment,  the 
depth  with  which  love  and  hate,  disgust  and  aversion,  indigna- 
tion and  delight,  find  root  in  us,  it  is  this  that  attunes  the 
melody  of  our  thoughts,  that  makes  us  the  men  we  are."  (Op, 
cit.,  p.  16.) 

It  is  this  organic  theory  of  spiritual  life,  and  especially  the 
correct  understanding  of  the  significance  of  feeling  and  will 
which  made  Herder  the  author  of  the  Storm  and  Stress  period, 
which  are  likewise  fundamental,  determining  principles  in  Herd- 
er's theory  and  ideal  of  education.     He  knew  both  as  a  psycholo- 

1  My  references  are  to  the  Cotta  Edition  of  1853.  The  School  Ad- 
dresses are  referred  to  in  the  Suphan  Edition,  vol.  30. 


44  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

gist  and  an  educator  of  wide  experience  that  the  child  mind  is 
predisposed  to  the  exercise  of  its  powers.  "  Why  has  the  creator 
endowed  youth,  the  male  youth  on  the  one  hand  with  such 
vivacity,  such  a  restless  spirit,  such  a  disposition  to  rivalry,  and 
their  sisters  with  an  irrepressible  curiosity?  It  can  be  for  no 
other  purpose  than  that  humanity  should  be  exercised,  trained 
in  all  its  powers.^  This  involves  the  movement  of  the  ej'es, 
feet,  hands,  tongue,  lips,  expression  of  the  countenance  in  our 
richly  endowed,  exquisite  organism." — "  Our  bodies  are  adapted 
to  exercise  by  their  very  construction,  our  spiritual  powers  are 
characterized  by  these  childhood  predispositions  and  no  others. 
There  is  nothing  so  detestable  to  a  healthy  child  or  boy,  one 
that  is  trained,  trained  to  happiness,  to  joyous  youth  as  indolent 
inactivity:  an  inactive  life  is  death  to  him;  lively,  and  even 
severe  exercise  brings  joy  and  health."  (W.  Suphan  30,  253  f. ) 
The  predisposition  to  the  exercise  of  every  power  is  present 
therefore  and  it  is  the  business  of  education  to  bring  these 
powers  to  complete  development  by  exercise,  leaching  must 
therefore  never  be  a  process  of  hammering,  of  mere  drill,  it 
must  rather  inspire  the  pupil's  self-activity.  "  No  teacher  can 
give,  or  pour  into  me  his  thoughts;  he  can,  should  and  must 
awaken  my  thoughts  by  means  of  ideas,  so  that  they  are  my 
thoughts  and  not  his."      (Op.  cit.,  p.  268.) 

But  it  is  not  merely  the  intellect  and  the  understanding  that 
require  this  kind  of  discipline.  Feeling  and  will  likewise  require 
development  and  exercise.  "  Any  one  whose  constant  industry 
at  school  has  made  dull,  who  studies  to  the  point  of  mental 
weakness,  hypochondria,  depletion  and  ill  health,  who  trains  the 
spiritual  to  the  neglect  of  the  body,  as  if  he  were  a  pure  and 
foolish  mind,  who  cultivates  one  mental  power,  the  imagination 
or  the  memory  for  example,  without  regard  for  the  others,  as 
understanding  and  reflection,  who  studies  for  the  head  without 
regard  for  the  heart,  or  on  the  contrary,  who  is  everlastingly 
absorbed  in  sensation  without  elaborating  correct  concepts  with 
cold-blooded  courage,  who  toys  with  everything  and  avoids 
serious,  persistent  effort  as  he  does  the  bottomless  pit,  all  these 
learn  nothing  for  life;  for  life  requires  the  whole  undivided 
man,  the  healthy  man  with  all  his  powers  and  members,  he 

1  Which  is  beyond  me. 


The  Character  and  Problem   of  the  Secondary  School      45 

must  apply  himself  with  head  and  heart,  with  thought,  volition 
and  deed,  not  only  in  play  but  likewise  in  the  most  serious 
affairs  of  life,  not  only  agreeably  but  vigorously.  Any  one 
who  is  unable  to  do  this,  who  has  failed  to  train  himself  for 
this  early  in  life,  has  acquired  nothing  for  life."  (Op.  cit., 
272.)  I  shall  quote  one  more  passage  from  the  same  address 
which  discusses  the  subject  "  Non  scholae  sed  vitae  discendum." 
"  Finally  since  life  not  only  uses  facts  and  ideas,  but  likewise  vo- 
litions, and  deeds,  and  it  is  in  these  above  all  that  life  consists, 
and  the  proverb  "  learn  life  rather  than  the  school  "  directs  itself 
especially  to  the  training  of  the  heart  and  of  character.  What 
avails  it  to  possess  a  thousand  facts  and  no  will,  no  taste,  no 
desire  or  impulse  to  live,  honestly  and  really  to  live.  We  live 
in  the  will,  the  heart  must  condemn  or  comfort,  encourage  or 
defeat,  reward  or  punish  us ;  the  efficiency  and  value,  the  good 
or  ill  fortune  of  life  is  not  based  on  facts  alone,  but  on  char- 
acter and  impulse,  on  what  dwells  in  the  human  breast." 
(273)  Herder's  pedagogical  maxim  may  be  briefly  formu- 
lated somewhat  as  follows:  The  whole  man  is  to  be  fully 
trained  in  each  individual  so  that  each  may  become  complete. 
Herder  invented  the  phrase.  Education  to  humanity,  to  express 
this  pedagogical  aim.  He  elaborates  and  praises  this  ideal 
psychologically  and  pedagogically,  historically  and  philosophi- 
cally with  untiring  effort.  In  one  of  the  "  Letters  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Humanit}'' "  (No.  24,  vol.  35,  p.  114)  he  makes 
a  defence  of  the  word  against  a  weak  germinization  and  con- 
tinues: "  Let  us  therefore  hold  fast  to  the  word  humanity 
with  which  the  best  authors  both  ancient  and  modern  have  as- 
sociated such  noble  ideas.  Humanity  constitutes  the  character 
of  our  race;  but  it  is  innate  only  in  rudimentary  form  and  it 
must  really  be  acquired  through  education.  We  do  not  bring 
it  with  us  into  the  world  as  a  finished  product;  in  the  world, 
however,  it  is  intended  to  be  the  goal  of  all  our  effort,  the  sum 
total  of  our  activities,  our  worth,  for  we  know  nothing  of  the 
angelic  in  man,  and  if  the  Daemon  which  governs  our  conduct 
is  not  a  human  Daemon  we  are  a  plague  to  mankind.  The 
divine  in  our  race  is  therefore  the  education  to  humanity.  All 
great  and  good  men,  statesmen,  inventors,  philosophers,  poets, 
artists  every  noble  soul  in  his  particular  sphere,  has  contributed 
to  this  end  in  the  bringing  up  of  his  children,  in  the  discharge 


46  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

of  his  duties,  by  example,  deed,  institution  and  doctrine.  Hu- 
manity consists  of  the  treasure  store  and  profit  of  tvtry  human 
relationship,  in  short  the  art  of  our  race.  Education  to  this 
end  is  a  task  which  must  be  incessantly  fostered,  lest  we  revert, 
both  high  and  low,  to  a  state  of  crude  animality,  to  brutality." 
It  is  Herder's  profound  conviction  to  which  he  gives  fre- 
quent expression  that  this  humanity  is  likewise  the  goal  and 
meaning  of  human  history.  He  undertook  to  elaborate  this 
thought  in  his  Ideas  and  thus  lay  the  foundation  for  a  phil- 
osophy of  history.  In  book  four  of  the  Ideas  we  read:  "  I 
have  indulged  the  wish  that  I  might  comprehend  everything 
which  I  have  hitherto  said  concerning  the  education  of  man 
to  rationality  and  freedom,  to  his  speculations  and  impulses,  to 
the  most  delicate  and  the  most  rugged  health,  to  the  replenishing 
and  subduing  of  the  earth,  in  the  word  humanit}'.  For  man 
has  no  better  word  with  which  to  describe  his  own  nature  tlian 
what  he  himself  is,  in  whom  the  image  of  the  creator  of  the 
world  is  imprinted,  in  a  way  in  which  it  may  here  become 
visible."  The  idea  that  humanity  is  the  conscious  or  unconscious 
ideal  of  social  evolution  appears  more  clearly  in  book  fifteen. 
The  title  of  the  first  chapter  of  this  book  is:  "  Humanity  is  the 
Destiny  of  the  Human  Race,  and  with  this  Destiny  God  has 
placed  the  Fate  of  our  Race  in  its  own  Hands."  At  the  very 
beginning  we  read :  "  It  is  with  a  view  to  this  manifest  destiny, 
as  we  have  seen,  that  our  nature  is  organized,  our  finer  sensi- 
bilities and  instincts,  our  reason  and  freedom,  our  delicate  and 
abiding  health,  our  language,  art  and  religion  are  directed 
towards  it.  In  every  situation  and  in  every  community  it  has 
been  utterly  impossible  for  man  to  have  any  other  thought,  to 
strive  for  any  other  goal  than  humanit}^  and  in  the  way  in 
which  he  conceived  it.  The  arrangements  of  nature  in  the 
race  and  our  respective  ages  are  adapted  to  this  end,  the  period 
of  childhood  lasts  longer  and  acquires  a  kind  of  humanity  only 
through  the  help  of  education.  All  the  various  modes  of 
human  life  throughout  the  earth  have  been  instituted,  all  varie- 
ties of  social  organization  have  been  founded  to  this  end." 
Throughout  all  history  whatsoever  of  good  has  ever  been  done 
has  been  done  for  the  sake  of  humanity' ;  whatsoever  of  folly, 
viciousness  and  atrocities  have  come  into  vogue  were  perpetrated 
against  humanity,  so  that  it  is  impossible  for  man  to  conceive 


The  Character  and  Problem   of  the  Secondary  School      47 

of  any  other  purpose  in  all  his  earthly  contrivances  than  those 
which  he  finds  within  himself,  i.e.,  imbedded  in  the  weakness 
and  strength,  the  lowliness  and  nobility  of  the  nature  in  which 
God  created  him.  If  therefore  we  know  ever>'thing  through- 
out the  whole  universe  only  by  what  it  is  and  by  the  effects  it 
produces,  the  purpose  of  the  human  race  on  earth  likewise 
receives  its  clearest  demonstration  in  its  nature  and  history." 
(29,  216  f.) 

Humanity  is  therefore  the  ideal  of  history  and  education  to 
humanity  the  duty  of  man.  As  yet  this  goal  has  nowhere  been 
attained,  but  the  nearest  approach  to  the  ideal  —  is  not  in  the 
period  in  which  Herder  lived,  but  in  the  culture  of  the  Greeks 
in  their  best  days.  Herder  as  a  matter  of  course  also  con- 
strues Greek  civilization  entirely  from  the  historical  point  of 
vievv-  and  likewise  on  this  account  deserves  more  consideration 
at  the  present  time.  Even  among  the  Greeks  everything  is 
conditioned  by  place,  time  and  circumstance  which  accounts  for 
the  fact  that  the  spirit  of  the  Greeks  cannot  be  repeated. 
"  The  thought  of  any  one  inventing,  of  singing  an  Iliad  now, 
of  any  one  writing  like  Eschylus,  Sophocles,  Plato;  is  impossible. 
The  childlike  simplicity,  the  unconstrained  mode  of  thinking 
about  the  world,  in  short  the  period  of  Greek  childhood  is  past." 
(29,  245)  But  we  can  nevertheless  learn  from  the  Greeks  how 
to  exercise  and  develop  our  powers  so  as  to  adapt  them  to  the 
problems  of  our  own  age.  In  his  youth  Herder  was  an  enthusi- 
astic admirer  of  the  Greeks  and  he  remained  such  until  the  time 
of  his  death.  In  the  Fragments  he  praises  the  Greek  poets 
in  glowing  terms:  "Yea  verily,  the  Greeks  with  their  fine 
poetic  sense  are  worthy  of  emulation ;  they,  whose  splendid  ideal 
furnishes  us  a  reflection  of  nature,  like  the  sun  is  mirrored  in 
the  sparkling  brook ;  whose  poetic  design  was  described  by  the 
goddess  Eunomia  and  embellished  her  daughters,  the  heavenly 
graces,  whose  images  are  veiled  in  the  glory  of  the  rising  sun, 
whose  mouth  speaks  melodies  —  they  are  worthy  of  emulation." 
(18,  218)  There  are  even  passages  in  the  thirteenth  book  of 
the  Ideas,  which  is  devoted  exclusively  to  the  Greeks,  treating 
of  their  historical  development  and  significance,  in  which  the 
Greeks  are  described  as  typical,  as  our  everlasting  teachers. 
"  The  young  people  must  learn  to  read  the  Greeks  because  the 
aged  rarely  see  them  and  are  rarely  inclined  to  appropriate  their 


48  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

flowers." — "  We  have  still  much  to  learn  in  their  forms  of  ex- 
pression, the  beautiful  proportion  and  sweep  of  their  ideas, 
the  nature-inspired  intensity  of  their  sensations,  and  finally  in  the 
sonorous  rhythm  of  their  language,  which  has  never  found  its 
equal  anywhere."  "  In  point  of  popular  enlightenment  we  are 
indebted  to  solitary  Athens  for  all  that  is  the  greatest  and  most 
beautiful  of  all  the  ages."  Herder  begins  his  General  Observa- 
tions on  the  History  of  Greece  with  the  following  words:  "  We 
have  contemplated  the  history  of  this  remarkable  zone  from 
several  points  of  view,  because  in  the  philosophy  of  history  it  in  a 
sense  is  a  unique  datum  among  all  the  nations  of  the  earth.  The 
Greeks  are  not  only  free  from  the  admixture  of  foreign  nations 
and  maintained  their  identity  in  their  whole  education;  but 
they  have  likewise  lived  through  their  periods  so  fully  and 
traversed  the  whole  course,  from  the  smallest  beginnings  of 
education,  so  completely  as  no  other  nation  of  histor>'  has  done." 
"  They  speak  to  us  with  a  philosophical  spirit,  the  humanity 
of  which  I  seek  in  vain  to  put  into  my  essay  concerning  them." 
But  Herder  has  given  the  best  characterization  of  the  Greek 
spirit  in  its  pure  manliness  and  in  its  pedagogic  value  in  his 
Nemesis,  a  Suggestive  Allegory,  a  work  that  has  been  some- 
what neglected  by  the  expounders  of  the  Herder  literature. 
Herder  here  discusses  the  distinctively  Greek  conception  of 
Nemesis  on  the  basis  of  artistic  representations  and  poetic  refer- 
ences with  which  the  Greeks  have  incorporated  their  refined 
sense  of  Justice  which  curbs  and  avenges  superciliousness  in 
good  fortune.  In  the  conclusion  of  this  brief  but  richly  sugges- 
tive essay  he  observes:  "  Moreover  I  doubt  whether  any  nation 
has  ever  described  the  poco  piu  and  poco  meno  of  human 
sociation,  i.e.,  the  fine  outline  of  the  form  and  art  of  life,  so 
clearly  and  so  beautifully  as  the  Greeks  were  able  to  do.  To 
them  the  Muses  gave  that  intuitive  appreciation  of  every  form 
in  sculpture  and  poetic  art,  that  unexaggerated  and  unexagger- 
ating  sense  of  the  true  and  the  beautiful  of  every  kind,  which 
could  not  even  be  disguised  in  philosophy  and  gave  their  shortest 
pedagogic  maxims,  their  slightest  sj^mbols  such  a  well  defined 
outline,  such  an  impressive  grace,  as  we  seek  in  vain  among  any 
other  people.  Their  horizon  is  of  course  limited ;  it  extends  but 
a  little  beyond  the  present  life  which  to  them  constituted  the 
main  object  of  existence.     But  from  this  point  of  view,  how 


The  Character  and  Problem   of  the  Secondary  School      49 

wonderfully  clear  was  their  vision,  how  humanely  they  ap- 
preciated every  form !  How  beautifully  they  clothed  the 
language  of  their  statuar\^  and  literature!  No  nation  has 
equalled  them  in  this  respect,  to  say  nothing  of  surpassing  them, 
so  that  it  must  be  regarded  a  distinct  loss  to  humanity  when 
their  philosophy  and  symbolism,  their  poetry  and  language  was 
driven  from  the  earth  and  banished  from  the  sight  of  youth. 
I  can  see  no  substitute  for  them."  And  finally  permit  me  to 
refer  to  one  more  passage  bearing  on  this  point  in  the  school 
addresses.  In  his  funeral  oration  on  director  Heinze,  Herder 
eulogizes  the  departed  "  as  the  broad-minded,  sweet-tempered 
philosophic  spirit,  such  as  could  be  nurtured  and  inspired  only 
by  a  study  of  the  ancients,"  and  in  his  address  on  "  The  Correct 
Conception  of  the  Fine  Arts"  he  says:  "These  ancient  pro- 
genitors of  the  discipline  of  the  human  mind  therefore  stand 
before  us  as  the  eternal  types  of  correct,  good  and  cultured  taste 
and  the  most  beautiful  finish  in  the  use  of  language.  We  must 
form  our  mode  of  thought  and  writing  after  theirs,  and  if  we 
would  be  useful  to  mankind,  we  must  construct  our  reason  and 
language  after  their  pattern." 

Herder's  idea  and  purpose  is  therefore  clear.  Humanity  is 
the  ideal  of  mankind  and  all  education  must  be  based  upon  it. 
The  education  of  all  the  spiritual  powers  from  within  in  order 
that  they  may  evolve  a  complete,  harmonious  personality.  And 
the  study  of  the  ancients,  especially  the  Greeks,  is  an  approved 
and  certain  means  to  this  end.  It  is  not  intended  however  that 
we  imitate  the  Greeks,  but  rather  be  filled  with  their  spirit  in 
order  thereby  to  quicken  our  own.  Herder  is  really  insisting  on 
the  same  thing  as  the  most  enthusiastic  among  modern  advo- 
cates of  antiquity',  Th.  Zielinski,  in  his  excellent  book:  The 
Ancients  and  We  cast  into  the  phrase,  "  Not  norm,  but  seed." 
We  are  to  contemplate  the  artistic  products  of  the  Greeks  so  as 
to  comprehend  from  them  the  nature  and  beauty  of  the  human 
form.  We  are  to  study  their  poets  and  philosophers  to  quicken 
the  powers  within  us  which  bring  to  perfection  the  desire  and  the 
capacit}'  to  be  men  and  nothing  but  men. 

It  is  in  the  same  spirit  that  Goethe,  Schiller  and  William 
von  Humboldt  would  bring  a  new  Greece  to  birth  in  which 
everything  noble  and  aspiring  in  man  should  be  fostered,  de- 
veloped and  recognized.     Complete  personality  is  the  goal,  ab- 


50  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

sorption  in  the  Greek  spirit  is  the  way.  Schiller  emphasizes 
above  all  else  the  aesthetic  education  of  man.  According  to 
him  it  is  play  and  the  art  which  results  therefrom  that  de- 
velops manhood  in  man;  that  distinguishes  him  from  animals 
and  the  Deity.  He  regards  the  Greek  ideas  of  the  gods  the 
prototypes  of  the  aesthetically  happy  man,  whom  the  pure  joy 
of  art  is  capable  of  refining  to  true  spiritual  freedom.  Goethe's 
ingenious  versatility,  his  exceptionally  rich  and  creative  person- 
ality, his  profound  interest  in  natural  science,  his  method  of 
thoroughly  mastering  everj'thing  he  undertook  and  making  it  a 
part  of  himself,  permits  him  to  see  in  the  Greeks  not  only  the 
aesthetic,  but  rather  the  organic,  the  things  in  their  nature 
which  bear  on  life.  "  Man  may  accomplish  much,"  observes 
Goethe,  "  by  an  intelligent  use  of  individual  powers,  he  may 
accomplish  the  extraordinary  by  a  combination  of  several  tal- 
ents, but  he  produces  the  unique  and  wholly  unexpected  only 
by  uniformly  uniting  within  himself  all  the  human  attributes. 
The  last  was  the  lot  of  the  ancients,  especially  the  Greeks  in 
their  palmiest  days."  In  Greek  sculpture  and  poetry  he  espe- 
cially prizes  the  "  immediate  intuition  of  the  objective  and  the 
subjective  world."  "  It's  clearness  of  conception,  serenity  of 
appropriation,  ease  of  communication  that  enchants  us,  and 
when  we  say  therefore  that  we  find  all  of  these  in  the  genuine 
Greek  works,  and  indeed  accomplished  in  connection  with  the 
sublimest  subject  matter,  the  most  noteworthy  content,  together 
with  accurate  and  complete  elaboration,  it  will  be  understood 
why  we  make  this  our  starting-point  and  in  the  end  always 
return  thither  again.  Everyone  is  a  Greek  in  his  oiun  way,  but 
let  him  be  one  in  fact." 

Neohumanism,  which  means,  as  we  now  are  aware,  aiming  at 
complete  and  pure  personality  through  absorption  in  the  Greek 
spirit,  is  most  fully  developed  and  most  thoroughly  system- 
atized by  William  von  Humboldt.  William  von  Humboldt 
construed  the  idea  of  humanity  so  as  to  comprehend  a  theory 
of  the  universe  and  of  life,  so  as  to  involve  a  philosophy  of  hu- 
manity. Edward  Spranger  has  brought  out  this  fact  both  im- 
pressively and  instructively  in  his  book  on  William  v.  Hum- 
boldt and  the  Idea  of  Humanity."  (Berlin,  1909.)  His  Will- 
helm  V.  Humboldt  and  Educational  Reform  furnishes  a  splen- 
did supplement.     Inasmuch  as  I  refer  the  reader,  who  cares  to 


The  Character  and  Problem   of  the  Secondary  School      5^ 

make  a  deeper  study  of  William  v.  Humboldt,  to  these  works, 
I  shall  at  present  describe  the  characteristic  principles  of  the  first 
mentioned  work  to  which  the  citations  likewise  refer. 

William  v.   Humboldt's  aim  from  the  start  is  directed  to- 
wards intensive  and  extensive  self-education.     This  is  shown 
by  his  early  dismissal  from  public  office  upon  which   he  had 
entered   at  the  age  of  twenty-five.     This   dismissal,   Spranger 
quite  correctly  observes  (p.  46),  is  his  first  decisive,  personal 
avowal   of  the  idea  of  humanity.     We  see  how  seriously  he 
regarded  the  matter  from  the  reference  he  makes  to  it  in  writing 
to  his  betrothed :     "  It  then  dawned  on  me  for  the  first  time, 
that  after  all  the  only  thing  of  actual  value  consists  of  what 
man  is  in  himself." — "  My  vocation  appeared   to  be  that  of 
finding  the  way  which  would  lead  me,  me  alone,  to  the  highest 
goal." — "  I   afterwards   found   that  there  is   another  criterion 
of  the  good,  even  of  that  which  man  does,  and  I  became  firmly 
and  unshakably  convinced  of  the  truth,  often  vaguely  felt  but 
rarely  clearly  elaborated,  that  man  inevitably  does  just  as  much 
good  as  he  becomes  good  in  himself."      (Spranger,  46  f.)      Ac- 
cording to   Humboldt,  however,   self-education  means  first  of 
all  an  extensive  acquaintance  with  men,  a  comprehensive  knowl- 
edge of  even^thing  that  transpires  within  man.     "  I  once  had 
the  fixed  idea,"  he  writes  even  at  the  age  of  fifty-six,   "  that 
before  we   depart   the   present   life  we   must   understand    and 
appropriate  as  many  subjective  human  phenomena  as  possible 
—  and  it  is  for  these  alone  that  I  have  a  correct  sense  of  appre- 
ciation, since  ever>thing  else  only  produces  a  passing  effect." 
Thus    the   individualistic   principle    involved    in   the   effort    at 
self-education  expands  to  universalism,  which  would  appropriate 
ever>'thing  human,  develop  every  phase  of  the  individual  ego 
and  enlarge  this  individual  self  to  the  humanity-ego. 

Like  Herder,  Humboldt  is  at  first  chiefly  interested  In  psy- 
chology and  aesthetics.  His  intimate  association  with  Goethe, 
Schiller  and  Körner  furnishes  him  an  opportunity  to  elaborate 
his  aesthetic  ideas  more  thoroughly,  as  is  evident  from  his  es- 
say on  Hermann  and  Dorothea.  But  the  serious  study  of 
Kant  and  Fichte  gradually  impresses  him  with  the  ethical  ele- 
ment of  the  idea  of  humanity.  IVIan  as  an  end  in  himself, 
personal  worth  and  autonomy  resting  wholly  on  our  subjective 
nature  show  a  tendency  to  deepen  his  concept  of  humanity. 


52  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

Under  the  influence  of  Schelling  he  came  to  a  more  profound 
understanding  of  the  relation  of  mind  and  nature  which  gives 
rise  to  the  organic-cosmic  interpretation  of  his  idea  of  humanity, 
in  which  however  the  subjective,  i.  e.,  the  spiritual  man  still 
remains  dominant.  "  Everything  spiritual  in  man  consists  in 
the  self-appropriation  of  the  world,  the  transmutation  to  idea 
and  the  realization  of  the  idea  in  the  same  world  to  which  its 
materials  belong,  and  the  energy  and  mode  by  which  this  takes 
place  is  simply  changed  by  objective  conditions,  not  created  or 
determined." 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  it  is  largely  owing  to  the  found- 
ing of  the  University  of  Berlin  and  the  principles  of  school 
organization  put  into  operation  by  Humboldt  during  the  brief 
period  of  his  official  incumbency  as  minister  of  education  that 
his  idea  of  humanity  controlled  the  neohumanistic  gymnasium 
for  several  decades.  Unity  and  consistency  constitute  the  na- 
ture of  mind  and  education,  instruction,  in  short,  the  whole 
of  education  must  be  conducted  accordingly.  He  has  ex- 
pressed this  idea  very  forcefully  in  a  recently  discovered  letter 
to  Schiller  of  Feb.  13,  1796,  lately  published  in  the  Deutschen 
Rundschau:  "The  sum  total  of  knowledge  (in  its  most  com- 
prehensive sense)  must  serve  the  single  purpose  of  furnishing 
the  mind  with  objects  for  its  exercise  and  the  refinement  of  its 
powers.  I  for  one  can  conceive  of  no  other  ultimate  end  of 
knowledge  and  education.  Knowledge  is  so  constituted  that  it 
reacts  on  the  mind  which  has  produced  it,  and  the  two  must 
constantly  remain  in  interaction.  This  will  be  active  and  salu- 
tary in  the  proportion  in  which  knowledge  is  homogeneous  with 
mind,  and  since  this  can  only  pertain  to  its  form,  it  must  follow 
that  the  direct  importance  and  value  of  knowledge  lies  in  its 
form  alone.  The  subject  matter  deserves  attention  only  in  so 
far  as  the  form  would  be  inconceivable  without  it  and  the  latter 
necessarily  increases  both  in  definiteness  and  effectiveness  with 
the  quantity  of  well  elaborated  material.  The  most  essential 
attribute  of  mind  is  unity  in  the  organic  efficiency  of  all  its 
powers.  If  therefore  the  sum-total  of  knowledge  is  to  be 
homogeneous  with  mind  it  must  possess  the  qualities  of  com- 
pleteness, consistency  and  unity.  This  is  the  general  principle 
in  which  all  educated  minds  must  be  exactly  alike  and  upon 
which  the  possibility  of  their  agreement  rests.     This  however 


The  Character  and  Problem   of  the  Secondary  School      53 

implies  more  than  that  the  mere  knowledge  and  abilities  of  men 
must  constitute  a  whole,  they  must  not  merely  constitute  a 
whole  in  a  general  way,  but  at  the  same  time  such  a  whole 
as  corresponds  with  respect  to  form  to  that  whole  of  which  all 
knowledge  consists.  That  is  to  say  that  every  object  of  knowl- 
edge bears  a  twofold  relation,  one  to  the  whole  body  of  knowl- 
edge and  another  to  the  mind  itself.  The  scholar  should  at 
least  understand  all  these  relations,  although  he  is  at  the  same 
time  far  from  requiring  the  possession  of  the  objects  to  which 
these  relations  appertain.  The  matter  of  primary  importance 
therefore  is  to  set  up  the  business,  the  whole,  the  sphere,  which 
is  completely  general,  and  secondly  to  determine  the  several 
viewpoints  from  which  the  whole  is  possible.  For  we  must 
always  aim  to  interpret  the  whole  field  of  knowledge  from  some 
definite  point  of  view.  This  is  the  only  way  to  avoid  narrow- 
ness and  insipidity." 

This  analysis  clearly  reveals  the  way  in  which  the  conception 
of  general  education  subjectively  considered  (biological)  is  con- 
strued, and  to  what  extent  the  neohumanists  placed  the  stress 
not  on  the  imparting  of  information,  but  on  inspiring  the  mental 
powers.  But  it  likewise  reveals  the  beginning  of  the  transi- 
tion to  the  formal  conception  of  education  which  later  de- 
veloped so  narrowly,  after  the  idea  of  humanity  had  lost  its 
force.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  I  have  given  Humboldt's  view 
as  developed  in  his  correspondence  in  such  detail. 

Humboldt's  idea  of  humanity  and  his  ideal  of  education  are 
permeated  through  and  through  and  supported  by  his  enthusi- 
asm for  Greek  civilization.  In  his  case  this  enthusiasm  rests 
on  comprehensive,  thorough  and  profound  philological  and 
historical  studies.  Hejne  introduced  him  to  the  study  of  an- 
tiquities and  his  intimate  friendship  with  the  philologist,  F.  A. 
Wolf,  continued  for  so  many  years,  kept  alive  his  interest  in 
the  strictly  philological  treatment  of  the  Greeks.  Although  it 
was  chiefly  the  philological,  historical  as  well  as  the  esthetic 
interest  that  at  first  attracted  him  to  the  Greeks,  the  idea  that 
the  Greeks  are  a  unique  phenomenon  in  the  history  of  the  world 
and  that  they  reveal  the  beauty  and  completeness  of  humanity  is 
nevertheless  combined  with  it  even  at  this  stage  of  his  develop- 
ment. As  early  as  1796  therefore  he  regarded  the  study  of 
the  Greeks  as  the  most  valuable  as  well  as  the  most  effective 


54  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

instrument  of  human  education.  In  that  year  he  writes:  "  I 
therefore  proceed  to  make  clear  to  myself  in  an  essay  of  my  own 
the  reason  why  the  study  of  the  ancients  as  such  and  without 
any  special  interest  in  this  special  department,  deserves  a  man's 
time  and  attention  for  its  intrinsic  merit.  It  seems  to  me  that 
these  reasons  have  been  correctly  appreciated  hitherto  (for 
natural  impulses  rarely  deceive,  and  without  them  we  would 
scarcely  have  sacrificed  life-times  to  this  otherwise  worthless 
plunder),  but  not  so  clearly  analysed."  (Spranger,  457.) 
Humboldt's  wide  acquaintance  with  Greek  literature  repeatedly 
convinced  him  that  the  productions  of  the  Greek  mind  do  not  all 
manifest  the  same  power  and  that  not  everything  among  the 
Greeks  corresponded  with  this  ideal.  But  he  deliberately  con- 
strues a  unity  and  an  ideal  out  of  the  Greek  spirit,  just  because  he 
intentionally  did  not  regard  them  purely  from  the  historical 
point  of  view.  "  One  spirit  pervades  all  Greek  poetry  without 
distinction  of  the  character  or  age.  The  divergences  are  insig- 
nificant and  we  may  disregard  them  when  speaking  of  Greek 
character  from  the  viewpoint  of  criticism  and  aesthetics  rather 
than  historically."  (Spranger,  468.)  "We  evidently  regard 
antiquity  more  idealistically  than  it  was,  and  we  should  do  so,^ 
since  by  its  form  and  its  relation  to  us  we  are  forced  to  expect 
ideas  and  efifects  which  transcend  the  ideas  which  constitute  our 
environment."  (Spranger,  487.)  Humboldt  therefore  also 
regards  such  poetic  productions  as  Euripides  as  un-Greek,  for 
the  same  reasons  that  the  Hellenism  of  the  Alexandrian  period 
represented  a  decline  of  the  Greek  spirit. 

This  idealized  conception  constantly  assumes  a  more  definite 
form  in  Humboldt's  mind.  The  influence  of  the  Romanticists, 
especially  Schelling,  impels  Humboldt  to  undertake  to  deduce 
the  character  of  the  Greek  spirit  from  metaphysical  principles. 
Through  the  elaboration  of  the  categories  of  the  organic  and 
the  symbolic,  the  Greek  spirit  seems  to  him  more  and  more 
the  expression  of  the  pure  idea  of  humanity.  "  Everything  is 
so  completely  transformed  in  the  hands  of  the  Greeks,  all 
things  sensible  are  among  them  so  charged  with  a  breath  of  the 
divine,  the  same  breath  which  we  feel  in  their  language;  for 
it  symbolizes  the  genuine  Greek  type  as  nothing  else  can.  It 
not  only  gives  the  Greek  type  sensible  form  however,  but  the 

1  Impossible  to  me. 


The  Character  and  Problem   of  the  Secondary  School      55 

productions  of  the  Greek  mind  gave  rise  at  the  same  time  to 
the  most  delicate,  the  most  pure  and  the  most  complete  symbol  of 
humanity,  and  thus  became  the  creator  and  prototype  of  hu- 
manity in  general.  The  vital  impulse  actuating  the  Greeks  is 
nothing  less  than  to  be  pure  and  complete  personalities  and  to  en- 
joy the  full  serenity  of  personal  existence.  Owing  to  the  fact 
that  they  outlived  their  original  impulse,  followed  their  merely 
natural  instincts,  they  were  therefore  destined  by  fate  to  ad- 
vance the  evolution  of  humanity." 

Humboldt  cherished  the  idea  that  the  Germans  above  all 
others  were  fitted  to  give  the  Greek  ideal  of  humanity  a  fur- 
ther development  and  adapt  it  to  the  thought  and  sentiment  of 
the  modern  world.  This  therefore  establishes  the  conviction 
that  engrafting  the  Greek  spirit  in  the  German  would  result 
beneficently,  if  humanity  should  again  enter  the  course  of 
progress  without  let  or  hindrance.^ 

It  is  therefore  evidently  an  idealized  Greek  spirit  that  is 
here  advocated  as  the  source  of  general  human  education.  This 
ideal,  as  Wilamowitz  has  correctly  contended,  was  ruined  by 
the  philology  of  the  nineteenth  century.  But  that  idealized 
Greek  spirit  has  inspired  sublime  and  noble  powers  among  the 
German  people,  and  we  may  well  question  whether  the  his- 
torically better  known  and  more  consistent  account  which  schol- 
arship furnishes  us  to-day  is  capable  of  accomplishing  as  much 
for  German  youth  as  the  Greece  of  Schiller,  Goethe  and  Wil- 
liam V.  Humboldt  really  has  accomplished. 

Through  the  introduction  of  W.  v.  Humboldt  the  philolo- 
gist, F.  A.  Wolf,  eventually  came  into  touch  with  the  Weimar 
group,  among  w^hom  the  new^  ideal  of  education  was  not  only 
cultivated  aesthetically,  but  likewise  theoretically  systematized 
by  the  Jena  philosophers,  Fichte,  Schelling  and  Hegel.  Wolf 
was  an  out  and  out  philologist.  When  he  went  to  Göttingen  as 
a  student  in  1777,  he  insisted  independently,  notwithstanding 
the  vigorous  opposition  of  Heyne,  on  matriculating  as  a  student 
of  philology  rather  than  of  theology,  as  was  customary  at  that 
time.  During  the  twenty-three  years  of  his  professorship  at 
Halle  (1787-1810)  Wolf  accomplished  truly  wonderful  re- 
sults.    He  developed  "  Antiquities  "  to  an  independent  science 

1  These  latter  ideas  are  taken  from  a  letter  written  in  French  to 
Schweighauser. 


56  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

and  likewise  became  the  organizer  of  the  neohumanistic  Gymna- 
sium. Full  of  enthusiasm  for  the  new  ideal  of  education,  Wolf 
was  thoroughly  saturated  with  the  idea  that  a  thorough  and 
self-elaborated  intelligent  understanding  of  classical  antiquity 
furnishes  the  surest,  in  fact  the  only  method  to  profound  knowl- 
edge and  to  real  education.  But  this  method  involves  a  thor- 
ough study  of  both  classical  languages.  Wolf  is  therefore,  both 
by  the  wealth  of  his  philological  knowledge  and  philosophical 
orientation,  specially  well  prepared  to  give  a  correct  estimate 
of  the  elements  of  education  involved  in  the  study  of  the  lan- 
guages. He  repeatedly  refers  to  the  fact  with  emphasis,  that 
the  ancient  languages  contain  far  more  such  formal  elements  of 
education  than  the  modern.  Paulsen  quotes  a  number  of  such 
expressions  from  Wolf  of  which  we  here  add  a  few.  "  Lan- 
guages, the  first  artistic  products  of  the  human  mind,  contain 
a  complete  stock  of  the  general  ideas  and  forms  of  our  thought  at- 
tained and  developed  in  and  through  the  progress  of  knowledge. 
It  is  by  the  knowledge  and  thorough  examination  of  the  differ- 
ing forms  of  expression  in  several  languages  that  we  first  begin 
to  get  our  bearings  in  the  realm  of  intellect  and  learn  to  better 
understand  and  use  its  accumulated  stores,  because  of  the  fact 
that  the  variety  of  modifications  of  similar  fundamental  ideas 
force  us  to  recognize  the  points  of  dissimilarity  which  appear 
in  them.  This  comparison  of  words  and  forms  of  expression 
therefore  does  not  merely  furnish  us  with  a  store  of  many  simi- 
lar symbols,  but  provides  us  with  an  actual  enrichment  of 
means  for  the  explanation  and  construction  of  our  ideas  which  is 
attainable  in  no  other  way."  "  The  language  of  a  people  must 
necessarily  furnish  us  unaccustomed  views  of  things,  new  ideas 
and  modifications  of  thought  in  proportion  as  their  mode  of 
thought,  conduct  and  life  differs  from  and  conflicts  with  ours. 
This  is  proven  by  the  ease  with  which  we  to-day  learn  three 
languages  of  our  neighbors  as  readily  as  one  of  the  ancient  lan- 
guages, because,  as  we  might  almost  say,  a  kind  of  neo-European- 
ism  has  combined  them  under  a  single  idiom.  But  this  greater 
difficulty  of  an  ancient  language,  which  carries  us  into  a  strange 
realm  of  ideas  and  points  of  view,  likewise  rewards  our  labor 
correspondingly."      (Paulsen  II,  213.) 

Even  though  Wolf  did  not  lay  the  chief  stress  on  this  lin- 
guistic discipline,  but  referred  to  the  whole  of  antiquity,  the 


The  Character  and  Problem   of  the  Secondary  School      57 

"  organic  education  "  of  the  Greeks,  nevertheless  the  reversal  of 
the  splendid  and  profound  program  of  education  of  our  classicists 
was  brought  about  by  him.  This  tendency  gradually  becomes 
clearer,  more  deliberate  and  more  narrow  among  Wolf's  disciples 
of  the  first  and  second  generation.  The  maxim  of  "  fonnal 
education "  becomes  ever  more  frequent.  It  is  intended  to 
imply  a  purely  intellectual  discipline  of  the  mind  by  means  of 
the  analysis  of  linguistic  forms.  The  idealistic  philosophy  which 
esteems  abstract  thought  far  above  sense  perception,  was  favor- 
able to  this  tendency  and  Fichte,  Schelling  and  Hegel  are  the 
most  vigorous  and  ardent  advocates  of  the  classical  education 
which  had  become  philological.  The  fact  that  Latin,  which 
had  receded  somewhat  into  the  background  at  the  first  enthusi- 
asm for  the  Greek,  again  came  into  prominence  during  the 
twenties  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  likewise  characteristic  of 
the  turn  from  the  universal  human  to  the  merely  formal. 
(Paulsen  II,  324.)  Latin  style  and  an  intensive  study  of 
grammar  therefore  constituted  the  most  important  part  of 
"  humanistic  "  studies.  Paulsen  relates  the  fact,  in  his  Youth- 
ful Reminiscences  that  he  was  admitted  to  Untersecunda  in  the 
Altona  Gymnasium  at  Easter,  1863,  on  the  basis  of  a  success- 
ful translation  into  Latin.  He  further  observes:  "The  writ- 
ing of  Latin  dominated  the  whole  educational  system  so  com- 
pletely that  there  were  no  examinations  in  other  branches. 
It  would  be  incorrect  to  assert  that  lectures  on  the  ancient 
classics  were  neglected  on  account  of  the  instruction  in  gram- 
mar and  style.  Rather  the  contrary.  In  many  institutions 
there  was  indeed  considerable  attention  given  to  the  Greek  au- 
thors. But  the  aim  was  no  longer  a  balanced  personality,  but 
formal  discipline.  Herder's  comprehensive  and  profound  ideal 
of  humanity  had  become  narrowed  down  to  classical  philology." 
Far  be  it  from  us  to  ascribe  slight  value  to  such  formal 
discipline  of  the  mind  as  that  resulting  from  an  intensive  drill 
in  the  classic  languages.  This  kind  of  discipline  of  the  intellect 
will  retain  its  value  as  an  important  element  of  general  educa- 
tion for  a  long  time  to  come.  But  even  the  most  pronounced 
and  most  vigorous  advocate  of  the  humanistic  gj^mnasium  will 
no  longer  care  to  affirm  that  the  philological  pursuit  of  the 
classical  languages  is  really  adapted  to  quicken  all  the  spiritual 
and  mental  powers  and  furnish  an  actually  general  education  in 


58  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

the  biologico-psychological  sense  of  the  term.     The  demand  for 
new  elements  of  education  therefore  became  and  still  becomes 
more   insistent.     We   want   the   modern    languages,   we   want 
history  and  geography,  and  we  especially  insist,  and  justifiably 
so,    on    a    thorough    acquaintance   with   mathematics    and    the 
natural   sciences.     New   institutions   arise  which   devote  more 
attention  to  practical  needs,   and,  since  the  Prussian  code  of 
1900  places  the  three  kinds  of  secondary  schools  of  north  Ger- 
many having  nine-year  courses,  on  the  same  level  so  far  as  en- 
trance to  university  is  concerned,  the  general  education  offered 
by  the  German  secondary  schools  has  again  assumed  the  en- 
cyclopedic character.     Otto  Willmann  has  very  pointedly  de- 
scribed the  difficulty  with  our  educational  policy  on  this  point. 
In  the  latest  edition  of  his  Didactics  he  speaks  of  it  as  fol- 
lows (276)  :     "The  weakness  of  our  courses  of  study  lies  in 
the  unsystematic  amalgamation  of  ancient  with  modern  sub- 
ject matter.     They  have  come  into  being  through  a  cumulative 
process   rather  than   by  organic   development,   and   have   even 
ruthlessly  separated  matters  vitally  related  for  no  better  rea- 
son than  a  pedantic  desire  for  division  and  a  false  effort  at 
consistency.     By  attending  to  each  particular  element  of  edu- 
cation, its  unity  has  been  neglected.     Instead  of  giving  the  in- 
ternal structure  a  firm  foundation  in  a  well-organized  whole 
of  systematically  related  facts  and  intelligent  capacities,  in  or- 
der to  collect  and  arrange  the  confused  mass  of  suggestions  and 
advices,  as  they  occur  in  the  course  of  a  public  life  affected  by 
intelligence,  our  education  has  fallen  a  victim  of  multiplicity  and 
permitted  polymathy,  which   has  its  unquestioned  value   as  a 
peripheral  element  of  education,  to  occupy  the  central  position." 
The  brief  historical  sketch,  outlined  above  reveals  the  follow- 
ing:    Our  classicists,   especially  Herder,   formulated  an   ideal 
of  education  which  was  both  comprehensive  and  consistent  and 
described  a  method  of  deducing  a  pedagogically  and  didactically 
effective  concept  of  general  education  on  a  biologico-psychologi- 
cal basis.     Due  to  a  variety  of  causes,  which  we  cannot  even 
mention  in  detail,  it  has  hitherto  been  impossible  to  realize  the 
suggestions  of  Herder  in  his  own  sense.     We  have  rather  re- 
turned to  the  ancient  encyclopedic  conception  by  way  of  formal 
discipline.     Here  it  is  therefore  necessar>'  to  effect  a  change. 
Encyclopedic  education  cannot  and  must  not  remain  the  edu- 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School      59 

cational  aim  of  the  secondary  school.  This  must  of  necessity 
lead  to  dissipation  of  energ}^,  superficiality.  And  even  more 
than  this  it  must  lead  to  an  overburdening  of  courses.  We 
must  introduce  unity  into  this  variety.  This  will  succeed  most 
readily  and  most  certainly  by  a  return  to  the  educational  ideal 
of  our  classicists  and  aim  to  develop  and  formulate  them  on  the 
basis  of  the  later  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  biologj^  psy- 
chology and  sociology,  so  as  to  harmonize  with  the  demands  of 
the  present  time. 

3.    The  Theory  of  General  Education 
Constructive  Synthesis 

According  to  the  biologico-psychological  conception  of  our 
theory  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  educational  ideal  of  our 
classicists,  especially  Herder,  the  term  "  general,"  as  previously 
observed,  means  an  all-round  development  of  the  functions 
found  in  the  human  organism.  The  term  "  education  "  fur- 
thermore implies  that  this  development  must  proceed  organically, 
a  growth  from  within.  The  first  concern  of  the  educator  and 
teacher  to  whom  is  committed  the  difficult  and  responsible  task 
of  developing  the  potential  powers  of  the  pupil,  must  therefore 
be  to  discover  what  powers  are  hidden  in  the  human  organism. 
He  must  strive  to  acquaint  himself  with  the  most  important 
functional  combinations  in  order  that  he  may  first  of  all  elim- 
inate those  upon  the  exercise  and  development  of  which  he 
can  have  but  little  influence  from  the  sphere  of  his  efEort  and 
concentrate  his  whole  energ\'  upon  those  functions  which  re- 
quire the  most  help. 

Without  taking  any  position  on  the  metaphysical  question  of 
the  relation  of  body  and  soul  we  can  nevertheless,  wholly 
within  the  sphere  of  experience,  divide  the  native  functions  of 
the  human  organism  into  two  large  classes,  the  physical  and  the 
psychical.  It  is  self-evident  that  mental  capacity  constitutes 
the  most  important  object  of  disciplinary  effort  in  general  edu- 
cation, but  there  are  likewise  some  bodily  functions  with  a  sig- 
nificance that  must  not  be  underestimated.  We  shall  first  di- 
rect attention  to  these. 

First  of  all,  the  so-called  vegetative  processes,  such  as  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  digestion,  assimilation  and  secretion  do 


6o  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

not  come  within  the  range  of  educational  effort.  It  is  of 
course  important  for  the  success  of  the  pupil  that  these  processes 
perform  their  respective  functions  normally,  but  their  care  be- 
longs to  the  department  of  rearing  children  which  Herbart 
calls  Care  of  the  Health.  The  school  must  not  neglect  these 
functions,  and  the  present  day  insistence  that  the  conduct  of 
the  school  be  hygienic  is  fully  justified,  but  no  one  would 
seriously  care  to  say  that  we  send  our  children  to  school  in 
order  to  improve  their  digestion.  These  matters  are  impor- 
tant conditions,  but  not  the  subject  matter  of  the  problem  of 
education. 

On  the  other  hand  the  motor  arrangements  of  our  body, 
and  especially  deliberate  movements,  belong  to  the  functions 
which  require  intelligent  training  and  development.  Writing, 
drawing,  playing  the  piano  constitute  a  series  of  deliberate  move- 
ments which  become  effective  only  through  intelligent  discipline. 
And  there  is  another  factor  of  still  greater  importance.  The 
long  periods  of  sitting  in  school  tend  to  arrest  the  development 
of  a  number  of  the  motor  organs,  especially  the  muscles.  We 
have  long  understood  that  this  condition  could  not  continue 
without  harm  to  the  growing  organism  and  tried  to  counteract 
it  by  gymnasium  drill  and  games.  From  our  point  of  view  we 
must  not  only  approve  this  practice,  but  we  must  do  even  more 
than  that.  We  should  add  extended  courses  in  manual  train- 
ing to  the  gymnasium  drill,  because  it  is  only  by  this  means 
that  we  can  accomplish  a  complete  general  development  of  the 
body.  Gymnastics  and  manual  training  must  therefore  be 
recognized  as  indispensable  elements  of  general  education  and 
receive  consideration  in  comparison  to  their  importance. 

There  is  still  a  further  reason  for  this  which  has  hitherto 
been  largely  neglected.  Gymnastics  and  manual  training  not 
only  serve  to  produce  physical  development ;  they  strengthen 
and  discipline  the  will  in  a  way  that  can  scarcely  be  accomplished 
by  any  other  means.  We  hear  much  at  present  about  the  train- 
ing of  the  will  and  we  shall  likewise  return  to  this  point  later 
on.  But  what  is  generally  implied  is  practice  in  self-control, 
self-possession ;  self-command  —  briefly  put  —  speaking  in  physi- 
ological terms  —  the  establishment  of  an  effective  inhibitive  sys- 
tem. But  our  pressing  need  is  positive  invigoration,  an  increase 
of  vital  impulse,   a   strengthened   determination.     Gymnastics 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School      6l 

and  manual  training  are  peculiarly  effective  in  this  direction. 
They  furnish  the  pupil  with  a  kind  of  mastery  over  his  own 
body,  give  him  a  sense  of  power,  of  ability  to  do  things,  of 
security,  such  as  adds  vigor  and  courage  to  the  whole  person- 
ality. Gymnastics  and  manual  training  are  therefore  impor- 
tant and  very  essential  elements  of  general  education. 

This  brings  us  to  the  consideration  of  the  mental  functions. 
First  of  all,  permit  us  to  make  two  general  observations. 
Everj'thing  psychical  is  essentially  teleological,  i.  e.,  directed 
towards  an  end,  and  all  psychical  processes  bear  a  profound  and 
vital  relation  to  the  preservation  of  life.  I  have  made  this 
teleological  and  biological  conception  the  basis  of  my  textbook 
in  psychology  (4  Ed.,  1907)  and  I  must  refer  to  it  for  the 
detailed  exposition  of  this  point.  But  it  seems  to  me  very 
important  that  every  teacher  should  thoroughly  acquaint  him- 
self with  this  mode  of  the  interpretation  of  psychical  processes. 
It  will  enable  him  better  to  understand  the  origin  and  tendency 
of  the  psychical  dispositions  of  his  pupils  and  thus  be  in  position 
to  institute  disciplinary  measures  accordingly. 

We  must  observe  further  that  modern  psychologj^  has  taught 
us  to  make  a  sharp  distinction  between  psychical  processes  and 
psychical  dispositions.  Psychical  processes  are  the  actual  spir- 
itual experiences  which  constitute  the  fleeting,  constantly  chang- 
ing content  of  consciousness  at  any  given  moment.  But  by  a 
psychical  disposition  we  mean  a  relatively  persistent  and  perma- 
nent capacit}'^  of  the  soul  to  experience  certain  kinds  of  psychical 
processes,  and  eventually  to  produce  them  at  will.  Correspond- 
ing with  the  primary  functions  of  consciousness  to  be  discussed 
presently  and  its  various  stages  of  development,  a  large  number 
and  great  variety  of  dispositions  are  gradually  formed  and  our 
language  has  formulated  an  abundance  of  descriptive  names. 
Thus,  e.  g.,  memory  represents  a  group  of  dispositions  which 
enable  us  to  experience  memon^-images  and  to  reproduce  a  series 
of  ideas  and  judgments.  Knowledge  represents  a  group  of  ac- 
quired judgment-dispositions. 

We  may  therefore  say  that  the  whole  problem  of  education  / 
consists  of  the  higher  development  of  the  innate  dispositions  of. 
the  pupil  and  to  aid  in  the  acquisition  of  new  dispositions.     The, 
aim  of  instruction  is  not  the  production  of  momentary  processes, 
but  permanent  dispositions.     The  processes  excited  in  the  minds 


62  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

of  the  pupils  by  means  of  instruction  are  not  ends  per  se,  but 
simply  the  means  for  the  production  of  permanent  dispositions. 
Descriptively  speaking,  a  general  education  represents  a  number 
of  acquired  dispositions  and  our  problem  consists  in  coming  to 
a  clear  understanding  of  the  nature  of  the  dispositions  to  be 
produced  both  as  a  class  and  individually. 

This  requires,  as  previously  observed,  a  comprehensive  under- 
standing of  the  psychical  processes.  We  can  accomplish  this 
most  readily  for  our  purposes  by  making  Jodl's  division  ac- 
cording to  the  primary  functions  and  stages  of  development  our 
starting  point.  I  have  likewise  followed  his  division  in  my 
textbook.  We  accordingly  distinguish  three  primary  functions 
of  consciousness,  which  I  am  disposed  to  call,  knowledge,  feeling 
and  will.  These  three  primary  functions  are  very  easily*  dis- 
tinguished conceptually,  but  they  cannot  actually  be  separated. 
All  three  cooperate  in  every  actually  experienced  mental  process 
and  we  describe  a  psychical  act  as  an  act  of  knowledge,  feeling 
or  will  only  in  the  sense  that  one  of  the  fundamental  functions 
has  dominated  it.  The  nature  of  the  soul  has  therefore  pre- 
scribed both  the  method  and  the  aim  of  the  educational  problem. 
If  general  education  constitutes  this  result,  it  must  follow  that 
none  of  these  fundamental  functions  dare  be  given  preference 
at  the  expense  of  the  others.  All  must  rather  have  the  chance 
of  exercise  and  they  should  all  be  trained  to  harmonious  co- 
operation. We  shall  therefore  show  very  briefly  what  kind  of 
educational  effort  is  adapted  to  each  of  these  primary  functions. 

In  the  primary  function  of  knowledge  the  stages  of  develop- 
ment as  described  by  Jodl  are  most  readily  distinguished.  The 
primary  stage  involves  sensation  and  perception,  the  secondary 
ideation  and  the  third  linguistically  formulated,  conceptual 
thought.  Educational  effort  will  always  be  most  effective  and 
most  intensive  in  these  primary  functions  because  the  direction 
and  activity  is  most  easily  and  most  definitely  influenced  and 
determined  by  the  presentation  of  new  material.  The  educa- 
tional problem  here  applies  almost  exclusively  to  the  two  higher 
stages,  i.  e.,  therefore  to  the  ideational  and  the  conceptual. 
What  is  generally  described  as  training  in  sense  perception  is 
never  exclusively  or  even  chiefly  a  further  development  of  the 
sensory  or  perceptual  apparatus,  but  always  a  guidance  to  a 
many-sided  and  correct  interpretation  of  sense-impressions  and 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School      63 

this  interpretation  consists  in  effecting  an  association  of  ideas 
and  in  the  development  of  the  function  of  judgment.  The 
value  of  instruction  in  sense  perception  lies  in  the  fact  that 
strong  sensory  impressions  are  better  adapted  to  stimulate  and 
develop  the  ideational  and  intellectual  processes  than  it  is  pos- 
sible to  do  with  words. 

The  question  arises  therefore  in  what  manner  and  to  what 
degree  the  school,  and  especially  the  secondary  school,  is  called 
upon  to  develop  the  function  of  knowledge.  Or,  to  put  it 
differently,  what  degree  of  intellectual  discipline  is  involved  in 
general  education.  The  public  school  lays  the  foundation  for 
a  further  development  of  the  intellect  first  of  all  by  the  fact 
that  furnishes  the  children  with  the  conditions  and  possibility 
of  further  education  by  teaching  them  to  read  and  write.  The 
child  learns  to  read  in  order  to  gain  access  to  the  thoughts  of 
others,  and  it  learns  to  write  for  the  purpose  of  imparting  its 
own  ideas  to  others.  Instruction  in  reading  and  writing  how- 
ever is  not  a  discipline  of  the  intellectual  functions,  it  merely 
provides  the  possibility  of  doing  this.  The  educational  task 
has  no  bearing  on  the  intellectual  function  of  the  child  until 
the  subject  matter  read  is  treated  from  the  viewpoint  of  lin- 
guistic construction  and  matters  of  fact.  Arithmetic  brings  into 
play  another  very  important  factor.  It  is  the  business  of  the 
elementary  school  therefore  to  furnish  the  elements  of  intel- 
lectual education  so  as  to  meet  the  most  general  and  important 
demands  of  practical  life  and  the  needs  of  the  state.  It  is  a 
matter  of  history  however  that  general  compulsory  education 
was  established  chiefly  from  military  and  economic  motives. 
Every  citizen  is  to  be  fitted  for  the  ordinary  business  of  life 
and  ever>'  male  citizen  is  to  be  intellectually  fitted  for  military 
service.  If  the  elementar}^  school  by  its  thorough  instruction  in 
facts  accomplishes  more  for  its  pupils  than  the  minimum  needs 
of  practical  life  require,  it  must  be  a  matter  of  rejoicing  to 
every  friend  of  childhood.  But  we  must  nevertheless  observe 
that  it  can  undertake  this  higher  aim  only  on  condition  that  the 
absolute  certainty  in  the  application  of  the  elements  of  educa- 
tion does  not  suffer.  For  the  first  and  most  important  aim  of 
the  elementar}'  school  is  nevertheless  concerned  with  the  prac- 
tical utility  of  the  intellectual  discipline  which  it  furnishes. 
It  must  confine  itself  to  what  is  unconditionally  necessar)^  the 


64  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

elements. 

How  then  may  we  the  most  clearly  and  most  intelligibly  de- 
scribe the  more  intensive  discipline  of  the  intellect  which  is 
justly  expected  and  demanded  of  the  secondary  school?  How 
may  we  best  characterize  what  is  called  the  advanced  general 
education,  in  so  far  as  it  pertains  to  the  intellect?  In  the 
heyday  of  neohumanism  men  presumed  to  find  the  real  value  of 
education  —  especially  the  classical  education  —  in  the  very  fact 
of  its  separation  from  everything  practical,  in  the  complete  ig- 
noring and  disregarding  of  everything  useful.  (Paulsen  H, 
215.)  The  discipline  of  the  mind  was  to  be  regarded  abso- 
lutely as  an  ideal  end  in  itself.  But  we  can  no  longer  main- 
tain this  negative  position.  It  follows  with  inevitable  certi- 
tude from  the  teleological  bearing  of  all  things  psychical,  that 
all  intellectual  discipline  must  of  necessity  react  on  our  actions, 
on  our  conduct,  on  our  character.  Furthermore  if  we  reflect 
on  the  fact  that  general  education  consists  of  a  group  of  social 
requirements,  we  will  no  longer  be  able  to  say  that  the  aim  of 
elementary  education  is  practical,  but  that  that  of  the  so-called 
higher  education  has  nothing  to  do  with  such  matters.  We 
must  rather  maintain  with  rigid  consistency  that  all  education  as 
well  as  all  science  proceeds  from  practical  needs  and  that  its 
ultimate  and  highest  aim  must  be  to  enhance  life,  i.  e.,  be  prac- 
tical in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  term.  We  must  therefore 
look  somewhere  else  for  the  distinction  between  the  elementary 
and  higher  discipline  of  the  intellect. 

Elementary  education  aims  at  the  immediate  utility  of  the 
knowledge  and  skill  required,  whilst  the  more  intensive  intel- 
lectual discipline  deliberately  takes  an  apparently  indirect  course 
and  fixes  its  attention,  not  on  the  immediate,  but  merely  on 
the  indirect  application  of  the  acquired  discipline.  This  indi- 
rect course  consists  in  the  fact  that  we  lead  the  pupil  from  the 
prescientific  to  the  scientific  stage  of  thought.  We  are  thus 
leading  the  pupils  along  the  same  course  which  the  human  race 
has  taken.  Man  has  made  a  large  number  of  discoveries  and 
inventions  on  the  level  of  pre-scientific  thought,  instinctively  so 
to  speak.  But  the  evolution  of  higher  civilization  begins  only 
where  definite,  persistent  effort  is  applied  to  the  investigation 
of  nature  and  the  human  soul,  i.  e.,  where  science  begins.  The 
chief   distinction   between  scientific   and   pre-scientific   thought 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School      65 

consists  in  the  fact  that  the  former  subjects  experience  to  a 
more  thorough  analysis.  In  this  way  it  is  often  possible  to  dis- 
cover new  relations  and  principles  in  experience-complexes 
which  are  objectively  very  different  but  alike  in  their  elementary 
processes.  The  various  sciences  have  in  the  course  of  time 
elaborated  their  own  method  of  procedure  and  invented  a 
large  number  of  new  instruments  of  thought.  These  instru- 
ments of  thought  on  the  one  hand  enable  us  to  grasp  a  larger 
number  of  experiences  in  a  single  act  of  thought,  and  on  the 
other  to  discover  and  express  finer  and  more  subtle  distinctions. 
It  is  this  familiarity  with  these  instruments  of  thought  dis- 
covered by  science  especially  that  characterizes  the  scientifically 
trained  mind  and  distinguishes  it  from  those  on  a  lower  plane. 

Anyone  occupying  a  responsible  position  in  the  social  or- 
ganism to-day  must  equip  himself  with  scientific  method.  We 
may  therefore  say  that  the  higher  class  of  society,  intellectually 
considered,  demands  a  scientific  education  of  all  who  would 
join  its  ranks, —  i.  e.,  familiarity  with  the  most  important  sci- 
entific instruments  of  thought.  It  follows  therefore  that  gen- 
eral education,  so  far  as  it  concerns  the  intellectual  phase,  is 
nothing  more  than  scientific  education. 

Looking  at  the  prescribed  course  and  methods  of  instruction 
pursued  at  our  secondary  schools  from  this  point  of  view,  we 
must  conclude  that  the  most  general  and  most  characteristic 
aspect  of  every  subject  consists  in  the  fact  that  the  pupils  are 
led  from  the  pre-scientific  plane  of  thought  to  the  scientific 
method  of  doing  things.  Everywhere  they  are  taught  to  analyse 
experience  and  in  every  subject  they  are  familiarized  with  a 
splendid  array  of  scientific  instruments.  In  many  subjects  this 
latter  feature  indeed  constitutes  a  very  essential,  if  not  the 
essential  part  of  the  instruction.  What  are  signs  of  equalitj% 
brackets,  powers,  roots,  logarithms,  systems  of  coordinates, 
equation  of  curves,  function,  but  instruments  of  thought  created 
by  mathematics.  And  hasn't  instruction  accomplished  some- 
thing worth  while  when  it  has  enabled  the  pupil  to  comprehend 
the  significance  and  use  of  those  instruments  of  thought  in  all 
their  breadth  and  depth?  Force  and  energ>%  atom  and  mole- 
cule, chemical  element  and  chemical  affinity',  velocity,  accelera- 
tion, moment  of  inertia,  electron,  potential,  again  are  thought 
instruments  of  physics  and  here  also  much  has  certainly  been 


66  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

gained  if  the  pupils  have  learned  to  use  these  instruments 
correctly. 

And  the  same  thing  holds  true  of  instruction  in  philological 
and  historical  subjects.  In  this  case  linguistic  forms  are  an- 
alysed —  frequently  to  satiety  —  not  only  with  a  view  to  a 
deeper  and  more  thorough  understanding  of  the  instruments 
prevailing  in  the  elementary  school  such  as  subject,  predicate, 
attribute,  object,  adverbial  relation,  but  new  and  more  com- 
plicated philological  instruments  are  introduced  and  practiced, 
such  as,  e.g.,  hypothetical  period,  relative  dependence,  potential 
mode,  &c.  After  we  have  once  put  all  philological  instruction 
on  a  psychological  basis,  as  I  have  contended  for  more  than 
twenty  years,  we  will  here  discover  analyses  still  more  pro- 
found and  thought  instruments  of  still  greater  effectiveness. 

The  intellectual  discipline  which  the  pupil  receives  in  the 
secondary  school  therefore  is  nothing  more  than  an  introduc- 
tion into  the  scientific  method  of  interpretation,  or  more  briefly 
expressed,  scientific  training.  The  subjects  and  methods  which 
are  best  adapted  to  this  end  will  engage  us  farther  on.  At 
present  it  must  suffice  to  describe  precisely  and  clearly  what  con- 
stitutes the  phase  of  general  education  which  is  concerned  in  the 
development  of  the  intellectual  functions.  And  here  we  can 
therefore  say  briefly  and  definitely;  so  far  as  it  concerns  the 
intellectual  functions,  general  education  is  scientific  training. 

This  brings  us  to  the  primary  function  of  feeling.  We  must 
here  note  with  all  emphasis,  as  suggested  above,  that  the  three 
primary  functions  never  function  independently  of  one  another. 
And  the  feelings  are  in  fact  the  least  independent  of  them  all. 
Especially  is  it  true  of  those  feelings  which  lend  themselves 
most  readily  to  development  and  differentiation,  that  it  is  only 
by  means  of  ideas  and  judgments  that  they  can  be  selected,  i.  e., 
through  the  cooperation  of  the  intellectual  functions.  Hence, 
in  discussing  the  education  of  the  feelings,  with  a  view  to  get- 
ting clear  as  to  the  kind  and  method,  reference  must  always  be 
made  to  the  intellectual  element  involved  in  it. 

In  my  textbook  of  psychology  I  have  shown  the  vital  bearing 
of  the  feelings  on  the  preservation  of  life,  and  on  this  basis 
classified  the  feelings  from  the  biological  viewpoint.  This 
method  required  me  to  distinguish  a  peculiar  class  of  feelings 
which   have   barely   been   recognized   hitherto.     It   consists   of 


The  Character  and  Problem   of  the  Secondary  School      67 

those  feelings  which  have  their  ground  in  functional  needs  of 
our  physical  and  psychical  organism  and  which  I  would  briefly 
describe  as  functional  feelings.  There  is  a  sense  in  which 
every  arrangement  or  function  with  which  the  human  organ- 
ism is  provided  has  a  propensity  towards  activity  and  the  satis- 
faction of  this  need  gives  rise  to  a  peculiar  feeling  of  pleasure, 
for  which  I  have  suggested  the  term  "  functional  pleasure."  I 
think  I  may  therefore  say  that  all  education  of  the  feelings,  in 
so  far  as  intelligent  guidance  is  possible  and  necessary  consists 
in  developing  and  differentiating  definite  kinds  of  functional 
pleasure. 

A  correct  methodical  division  of  instruction  will  itself  in- 
spire a  very  important  kind  of  functional  pleasure.  I  refer 
to  what  is  popularly  called  interest.  From  the  psychological 
point  of  view  theoretical  interest  is  nothing  more  than  joy  in 
the  successful  exercise  of  our  understanding.  We  shall  show 
farther  on,  that  the  matter  of  inspiring  interest  must  necessarily 
be  the  first  and  most  important  principle  of  instruction  in  the 
secondary  school.  The  joy  in  one's  own  individual  mental 
activity  is  so  far  as  education  is  concerned  merely  a  means 
of  securing  the  object  of  instruction,  i.  e.,  of  producing  the  requi- 
site intellectual  dispositions.  Knowledge  can  affect  the  human 
mind,  produce  the  state  of  mind  above  described  as  scientific 
education,  only  as  it  proceeds  from  within  by  means  of  the 
spontaneous  activity  of  the  pupil.  Even  Plato  observed : 
"  The  freeman  shall  never  be  required  to  acquire  knowledge 
under  conditions  of  servile  coercing  for  the  body  does  not  lose 
efficiency  through  coercion,  but  no  knowledge  abides  in  the 
soul  which  was  forced  upon  it"  (i/'i^xs  ^^  ßi-a-f-ov  ovhlv  e/xfiorov 
/jt.ä6rjixa,  Rep.  536  E.).  Inspiring  interest  however  is  not  merely 
a  means,  but  likewise  an  end.  The  joy  of  individual  intellectual 
activity  excited  and  guided  in  various  directions  by  instruction, 
i.  e.,  differentiated  and  enriched,  likewise  creates  new  disposi- 
tions of  feeling.  Even  Herbart  described  the  many-sidedness 
of  interest  as  the  aim  of  all  instruction. 

The  most  important  form  of  functional  pleasure  admitting 
and  requiring  discpline  is  that  which  we  find  in  asthetic  satis- 
faction. In  my  Introduction  to  Philosophy  (Eng.  Trans, 
p.  196)  I  have  endeavored  to  show  that  aesthetic  satisfaction  is 
nothing  more  than  the  functional  pleasure  arising  from  con- 


68  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

templation  ( Introduction,  p.  2 1 3  f . ) .  From  this  definition  of  the 
concept  it  inevitably  follows  that  aesthetic  satisfaction,  the  rudi- 
ments of  which  must  certainly  be  present  in  everyone,  may  be 
greatly  increased,  enriched  and  refined  by  intelligent  guidance. 
Philological  instruction  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  this  purpose 
and  in  fact  both  in  native  and  foreign  languages.  The  inter- 
pretation of  the  poets,  in  case  the  teacher  possesses  broad  in- 
formation, intensive  psychological  training  and  aesthetic  appre- 
ciation, can  arouse  the  sense  of  poetic  beauty  and  develop  the 
indefinite  impression  which  the  first  presentation  of  a  great 
production  makes  on  the  pupil,  to  an  appreciative  satisfaction 
and  a  purer  and  richer  joy.  Historical  instruction  further- 
more furnishes  occasion  to  interpret  the  works  of  constructive 
art,  whilst  arithmetic  may  develop  the  capacity  of  conceiving 
artistic  forms.  Schiller  has  also  shown  in  his  letters  on  sesthetic 
education  and  even  more  forcefully  in  his  poem  Ideal  and 
Life,  that  the  aesthetic  situation  develops  the  purely  personal 
powers  in  man  and  that  man  only  attains  to  complete  person- 
ality after  he  is  capable  of  aesthetic  satisfaction.  The  pure  joy 
in  the  beautiful  elevates  man  to  spiritual  freedom  and  the  re- 
alization of  the  highest  attainments,  i^sthetic  training  is 
therefore  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of  general  education 
and  it  is  likewise  historically  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  con- 
stant elements  of  the  same.  Society  justly  insists  that  all  who 
belong  to  the  more  highly  educated  class  be  trained  aesthetically, 
in  fact  it  must  aim  to  develop  the  appreciation  of  the  beautiful 
and  of  art  as  widely  as  possible.  The  art-inspiring  efforts  of 
our  age  such  as  the  concerts  and  readings  at  our  public  social 
gatherings  are  of  high  cultural  value.  The  advanced  school 
dare  not  neglect  this  element  at  any  cost.  We  may  even  say 
that  the  dissemination  of  aesthetic  education  constitutes  one  of 
its  most  important  problems.  The  primary  function  of  con- 
sciousness which  we  have  designated  the  feelings  is  therefore 
most  effectively  and  beneficently  developed  and  enriched  by 
aesthetic  training. 

So  far  as  concerns  the  will,  no  one  doubts  any  longer  that  the 
will  is  capable  of  and  needs  training.  Herbart  treats  this 
phase  of  education  in  the  chapter  on  discipline  and  in  ordinary 
life,  as  observed  above,  the  training  of  the  will  generally  means 
chiefly  discipline,  control,  in  short  the  restraint  of  the  will. 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School      69 

But  at  present  we  require  a  more  positive  training  of  the  will, 
consisting  of  the  accumulation  of  new  impulses  and  motives. 
The  aim  we  must  strive  to  realize  is  the  invigoration,  regula- 
tion and  enlargement  of  the  will  in  adaptation  to  the  tasks  of 
the  age. 

The  invigoration  of  the  will,  as  indicated  above,  is  realized 
first  of  all  by  means  of  systematic  physical  exercise.  Hardening 
the  bodies  of  the  pupils,  giving  them  control  of  the  motor  ar- 
rangements, invigorates  their  will,  increases  social  efficiency  and 
at  the  same  time  opens  to  them  an  unfailing  source  of  rich 
functional  pleasure. 

The  regulation  of  the  will  is  best  attained  by  habituation  to 
work.  We  shall  see  farther  on  that  together  with  the  de- 
velopment of  interest  habituation  to  work  constitutes  the  most 
important  pedagogic  principle  of  the  secondary  school.  At 
present  however  we  are  concerned  with  its  value  in  volitional 
discipline.  We  may  therefore  say  that  habituation  to  regu- 
larity in  work  produces  volitional  dispositions  which  increase 
the  social  efficiency  of  the  pupil  to  an  extraordinary  degree. 
But  such  habituation  is  likewise  profitable  to  the  individual 
from  the  simple  fact  that  anyone  who  is  accustomed  to  work, 
as  experience  shows  and  necessarily,  will  overcome  the  most 
difficult  obstacles  more  easily.  And  in  addition  to  this  it  opens 
a  rich  source  of  functional  pleasure. 

The  enlargement  of  the  will  consists  first  of  all  in  the  fact 
that  the  pupil  gradually  learns  to  set  up  more  remote  ideals. 
The  progress  of  civilization  is  based  on  the  fact  that  man  not 
only  provides  for  the  passing  day  but  undertakes  projects  which 
frequently  involve  great  sacrifices  for  the  time  being  but  prom- 
ise increased  wealth  and  happiness  for  the  future  in  compen- 
sation. It  is  fitting  in  this  age  that  even  the  youth  should  be 
trained  to  this  on  account  of  the  highly  developed  civilization 
under  which  we  are  living.  The  school  through  its  method  of 
instruction  furnishes  splendid  opportunity  for  such  enlargement 
of  the  will.  I  simply  refer  to  the  exercises  in  public  speaking 
which  require  a  more  extensive  elaboration  of  subject  matter 
and  a  longer  time  in  preparation.  I  refer  to  the  final  exam- 
inations the  pedagogic  value  of  v/hich  has  hitherto  been  wholly 
neglected.  And  private  reading,  especially  in  the  native  tongue, 
can  likewise  be  made  effective  in  this  respect.     And  the  intro- 


70  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

duction  of  a  kind  of  general  review  examination  for  the  brighter 
and  more  industrious  pupils  on  their  own  election  can  likewise  be 
recommended. 

However,  we  must  not  only  strive  to  enlarge  the  will  in  its 
formal  aspect  thus  far  described  but  likewise  more  positively  as 
respects  its  content.  I  have  in  mind  the  direction  of  the  will 
towards  social  affairs.  All  of  us  who  dwell  in  civilized  coun- 
tries have  been  born  into  a  great  social  organism  whose  institu- 
tions not  only  rest  on  us  but  are  likewise  infinitely  enriched  by 
our  presence.  We  utilize  these  institutions,  such  as  the  mails, 
the  telegraph,  railroad,  schools,  museums  and  such  like  without 
much  thought  about  it.  These  things  belong  to  the  blessings 
for  which,  as  Schiller  has  so  pointedly  observed,  "  habit  and 
unchallenged  possession  so  easily  despoil  our  gratitude."  Ac- 
cording to  my  judgment  it  is  the  business  of  the  school  to  im- 
press the  value  and  significance  of  these  institutions  upon  the 
mind  and  thus  introduce  the  will  to  a  new  and  large  field. 
The  effort  to  which  we  train  the  pupils,  the  remoter  ideals 
upon  which  we  teach  them  to  train  their  wills  must  ultimately 
contribute  to  the  advancement  of  the  social  body  to  which 
each  of  us  belongs.  If  we  were  far  enough  advanced  to  permit 
the  pupils  to  discover  in  the  school  that  the  individual  de- 
velops his  powers  most  effectively  and  at  the  same  time  most 
pleasantly  and  that  he  becomes  a  forceful,  well-balanced  per- 
sonality only  as  he  devotes  his  energies  to  some  important  social 
problem,  we  would  then  approach  the  ideal  of  will-training  very 
closely.  This  kind  of  training  may  best  be  fostered  through 
school  organizations  such  as  exist  in  America  in  large  variety 
and  very  extensively,  whilst  we  have  simply  made  a  beginning. 
(Cf.  Scott,  Social  Education,  1 909.) 

The  training  of  the  function  of  will  is  intended  to  create  the 
dispositions  which  may  be  described  as  the  ethico-social  sense. 
We  may  therefore  describe  that  part  of  general  education  which 
pertains  to  the  primary  fuction  of  will,  i.e.,  the  invigoration, 
regulation  and  enlargement  of  the  will,  as  ethico-social  edu- 
cation. 

This  would  complete  the  psychological  foundation  of  gen- 
eral education.  Scientific,  aesthetic  and  ethico-social  education 
constitute  its  essential  elements.  The  creation  of  these  psychi- 
cal dispositions  is  the  didactic  and  pedagogic  problem  at  pres- 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School      71 

ent  clearly  evident  on  every  hand.  Nevertheless  since  all  these 
dispositions  are  to  be  systematically  organized  and  all  education 
is  at  the  same  time  to  be  consistent,  well-balanced  and  socially 
useful,  we  must  add  a  word  concerning  the  subjective  rela- 
tion of  the  three  primary  functions  of  consciousness  and  the 
unity  of  personality. 

The  older  psychology,  particularly  the  Herbartian,  which 
still  forms  the  psychological  basis  of  pedagogic  and  didactic  the- 
ory in  our  teachers'  seminaries,  is  still  wholly  intellectualistic. 
The  ideational  process  is  regarded  as  the  primary,  original  prop- 
erty of  the  soul,  whilst  feeling  and  effort  are  regarded  as  derived 
states  and  interactions  of  ideas.  Modern  psychology  is  now  in 
process  of  completely  inverting  this  order  of  relation.  The  con- 
viction is  constantly  gaining  ground  that  the  feelings  and  im- 
pulses are  the  most  original  and  primary  activities  of  the  psychi- 
cal and  that  ideation  and  reflection  are  simply  built  upon  them. 
The  sublime  conception  of  Schopenhauer,  that  the  will  has 
created  the  intellect  for  its  own  ends,  has  been  remarkably 
supported  by  the  theory  of  evolution,  sociology  and  the  study 
of  primitive  races  and  children.  Primitive  races  and  children 
are  moved  to  reflection  only  through  intense  feeling  and  always 
in  connection  with  very  definite  and  immediate  ends.  The  in- 
tellect is  primarily  an  instrument  created  by  the  human  impulse 
to  self-preservation.  As  a  matter  of  fact  man  has  not  only 
conquered  the  world  with  this  instrument,  but  he  has  even 
created  an  entirely  new  world  to  the  enrichment  of  his  being 
and  the  enhancement  of  his  worth.  "  Science,"  says  Mach, 
"  has  apparently  grown  out  of  biological  and  cultural  evolution 
as  the  most  superfluous  side-issue.  But  we  can  now  no  longer 
doubt,  that  it  has  become  the  most  essential  factor  both  bio- 
logically and  culturally."  {Knowledge  and  Error,  2d  Ed., 
462.) 

But  notwithstanding  all  this  the  intellect  still  remains  a  super- 
structure. Stone  upon  stone  is  added  to  this  structure  under 
the  illumination  of  the  light  of  consciousness  and  the  whole 
problem  of  education  in  fact  apparently  consists  simply  of  the 
intelligent  construction  of  such  a  temple  of  knowledge.  How- 
ever, if  this  superstructure  of  knowledge  neglects  the  —  I 
should  say  —  vital  foundation  consisting  of  dispositions  of  feel- 
ing and  will,  the  whole  arduously  constructed  establishment 


72  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

consisting  of  facts  is  swept  to  utter  ruin  like  an  air-castle  at 
the  first  spiritual  upheaval,  the  first  breath  of  doubt.  This  con- 
stitutes the  profounder  meaning  of  the  platonic  passage  cited 
above,  that  no  knowledge  which  is  forced  upon  the  mind  abides. 
This  explains  why  our  pupils  accomplish  such  wonders  by 
forgetting  what  they  have  learned.  The  ballast  is  thrown  over- 
board, just  because  it  was  nothing  more  than  ballast.  The 
superstructure  falls  because  it  was  erected  without  being  suffi- 
ciently anchored  in  the  bedrock  of  the  soul. 

If  therefore  we  aim  to  make  the  scientific  education  which 
we  impart  to  our  pupils  their  permanent  possession,  and  to 
form  and  enrich  their  spiritual  life,  we  must  see  to  it  that  our 
instruction  furnishes  both  inspiration  to  their  feelings  and  op- 
portunity for  invigoration  and  desirable  exercise  to  their  wills. 
Every  class  period  which  fails  to  enlist  the  interest  of  the  pupils 
and  in  which  they  are  not  inspired  to  individual  effort  must 
be  regarded  as  lost. 

I  am  aware  that  this  makes  a  large,  perhaps  too  large  a  de- 
mand on  the  present  generation  of  teachers.  But  we  must 
nevertheless  insist  with  all  emphasis  that  emotional  and  voli- 
tional training  are  not  accessory  elements  of  general  education, 
which  forsooth  are  important  as  desirable  by-products  of  intel- 
lectual discipline,  but  which  still  fall  far  below  the  real  prob- 
lem. Every  teacher  must  far  rather  come  to  the  conviction  that 
all  his  instruction  is  in  vain  except  as  he  constantly  touches 
the  emotional  and  volitional  foundation  of  general  education. 
We  have  described  the  emotional  and  volitional  dispositions  as 
the  sub-soil  of  the  soul.  But  the  teacher  cannot  proceed  after 
the  manner  of  an  architect  who  first  lays  his  foundation  and 
then  proceeds  deliberately  to  the  erection  of  the  superstructure. 
This  is  impossible  on  account  of  the  subjective  interaction  of  all 
three  primary  functions.  He  must  rather  work  at  the  founda- 
tion unceasingly  and  as  the  knowledge  of  the  pupil  advances 
the  more  securely  must  he  be  anchored  in  correct  emotional  and 
volitional  dispositions  and  constantly  strengthen  the  foundation. 
We  shall  have  occasion  farther  on  to  discuss  this  problem  in 
detail  with  special  reference  to  the  actual  practice  of  instruc- 
tion. 

Scientific,  sesthetic  and  ethico-social  education  are  therefore 
not  isolated  parts,  but  vitally  related  attributes  of  the  concept 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School      73 

of  general  education,  as  we  have  undertaken  to  construe  it. 
We  must  maintain  their  organic  union  and  at  the  same  time  con- 
tribute to  the  enrichment  and  unification  of  the  personahty  of 
the  pupil.  But  this  unity  would  still  be  incomplete  without 
the  addition  of  two  more  educational  elements  besides  the  ones 
discussed.  In  my  judgment  the  completion  of  personality  like- 
wise requires  religious  and  philosophical  training.  I  shall  there- 
fore conclude  this  already  somewhat  lengthy  exposition  of  the 
concept  of  general  education  with  a  discussion  of  these  two 
elements. 

Religious  training  in  general  is  not  so  much  a  problem  of  the 
school  as  of  the  family  and  the  Church.  Anyone  who  is  reared 
in  a  community  that  is  religiously  inclined  will  naturally  acquire 
those  spiritual  dispositions  we  may  briefly  define  as  religiosity. 
The  social  character  essential  to  religion  already  indicates  that 
the  influence  of  environment,  the  suggestive  effect  of  the  milieu 
counts  for  more  than  any  direct  instruction.  And  the  great 
culture  religions  all  possess  the  prestige  of  a  long,  historical 
course  of  development,  a  powerful  tradition;  they  have  de- 
veloped complex  systems  of  doctrine  and  many  ceremonies  of 
worship.  The  need  of  familiarizing  the  rising  generation  with 
all  these  things  by  direct  instruction  long  ago  made  itself  felt 
among  most  religious  communities.  Many  civilized  countries 
regard  it  the  duty  of  the  state  to  furnish  the  youth  with  re- 
ligious instruction,  and  therefore  include  religious  training  in 
the  group  of  social  requirements,  the  sum-total  of  which  con- 
stitute the  concept  of  general  education.  Some  countries,  such 
as  France  and  North  America  leave  the  matter  of  religious 
training  to  the  discretion  of  parents.  But  even  in  those  coun- 
tries the  attitude  which  the  individual  takes  to  this  question 
depends  more  upon  the  social  group  to  which  he  belongs  than 
upon  the  choice  of  the  individual  himself.  At  any  rate  re- 
ligion is  at  present  not  a  private  affair  as  many  pretend  to 
assume.  It  is  of  course  true  that  religion  has  been  profoundly 
spiritualized  and  individualized  during  the  course  of  the  ages 
and  we  can  even  at  the  present  time  note  the  progress  of  this 
process.  The  social  character  of  religion  however  can  never 
be  lost,  because  it  belongs  to  its  essential  nature.  Religion  is 
undoubtedly  a  matter  of  personal  faith  and  life,  but  it  is  never- 
theless above  all  else,  a  sense  of  fellowship.     All  religious  ideas 


74  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

consist  of  social  crystallizations  and  it  is  as  such  that  they  have 
acquired  their  influence  upon  men. 

Religion  is  however  likewise  one  of  the  elementary  principles 
of  humanity.  Just  as  the  most  primitive  race  has  its  religion, 
humanity,  no  matter  how  far  advanced,  is  unable  and  unwilling 
to  renounce  it.  The  problem  as  to  whether  the  ultimate  nature 
of  the  universe  is  spiritual  or  material,  or,  as  I  believe,  both, 
belongs  to  metaphysics.  It  is  however  not  a  problem,  but  a 
fact  of  the  evolution  of  civilization  that  the  world  is  constantly 
being  more  and  more  spiritualized  through  the  efforts  of  man. 
Hence,  faith  in  spiritual  powers  constantly  receives  new  in- 
centive through  the  progress  of  mankind  and  as  long  as  this 
faith  persists  religion  will  likewise  endure. 

We  may  therefore  say  that  religious  training  will  constitute 
an  element  of  general  education  for  a  long  time  to  come,  and 
it  is  our  business  to  determine  which  of  the  primary  functions 
of  consciousness  it  is  calculated  to  develop.  The  various  con- 
fessions will  no  doubt  always  retain  the  privilege  and  duty  of 
determining  the  matter  of  religious  instruction,  but  general 
didactics,  as  Willmann  construes  the  theory  of  education,  will 
nevertheless  be  permitted  to  interpose  suggestions.  I  feel  jus- 
tified therefore  in  saying  that  religious  training  must,  first  of 
all,  be  a  part  of  emotional  and  volitional  training.  If  religious 
instruction  is  not  to  result  in  a  reduction  instead  of  an  advance- 
ment of  religiosity,  it  must  not  be  too  intellectualistic,  i.e.,  it 
must  not  appeal  exclusively  or  even  chiefly  to  the  memorj'  and 
intelligence  of  the  pupils.  History  of  religion  and  apologetics 
dare  not  constitute  the  chief  element  of  religious  education  as  is 
the  case  at  present.  Not  the  facts,  but  the  religious  significance 
of  the  facts  must  receive  the  chief  stress.  Every  class  exercise 
in  religion  should  contribute  something  towards  strengthening 
the  religious  sense  of  fellowship  with  the  super-individual,  the 
transcendent,  the  infinite,  the  primary'  cause  of  things  and  thus 
inspire  the  will  with  new  impulses  and  influence  its  ideals.  Re- 
ligion should  furnish  its  adherents  with  spiritual  enrichment 
and  energy  by  permeating  them  with  tender  consolation,  im- 
parting to  them  a  consistent  theory  of  the  universe  and  of  life. 
Here  however  religion  comes  into  intimate  relation  with 
philosophy. 

It  is  the  business  of  philosophy  to  do  the  same  for  the  primary 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School      75 

functions  of  intellect  as  religion  does  for  emotional  and  voli- 
tional training.  Both  are  intended  to  be  unifying  and  completing 
in  their  effect. 

Philosophical  training  is  at  present  gaining  increased  recog- 
nition as  compared  with  the  closing  decades  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Philosophical  training  could  be  imparted  most  effec- 
tively if  all  the  teachers  of  the  advanced  grades  were  capable 
and  disposed  to  bring  out  forcefully  and  thoroughly  the  philo- 
sophical elements  contained  in  every  subject  of  instruction. 
However  since  this  can  neither  be  expected  nor  desired  for  a 
long  time  to  come,  it  will  be  advisable  to  allow  a  course  in 
philosophical  propaedeutic  to  remain  or  introduce  it  anew  as  a 
separate  branch  at  the  conclusion  of  secondary  education  as 
has  been  the  case  in  Austria  for  the  past  sixty  years  and  as 
Germany  is  at  present  again  insisting.  The  plan  of  organiza- 
tion therefore  prescribes  logic,  psychology  and  introduction  to 
philosophy.  The  last  was  soon  omitted  and  the  Austrian  gym- 
nasia (not  the  Real,  schools)  actually  devote  two  week-hours 
each  to  logic  and  psychology  in  each  of  the  highest  classes.  In 
Germany  several  different  suggestions  have  recently  been  made, 
which  do  not  come  within  the  range  of  our  discussion.  On  the 
other  hand  I  should  like  to  call  attention  to  a  new  and  sugges- 
tive idea  recently  set  forth  by  Frederick  Jodl,  because  in  my 
judgment  it  offers  the  best  method  for  what  may  be  called 
philosophical  training  in  the  true  sense  of  the  term.^  Jodl  says 
clearly  and  definitely  that  it  seems  to  him  that  a  certain  kind 
of  instruction  in  logic  can  be  omitted.  Grammar,  mathematics 
and  the  mathematical  sciences  contain  so  much  logical  discipline 
in  their  very  nature  that  the  intensive  and  prolonged  study  of 
these  subjects  apparently  makes  it  superfluous  to  burden  the 
pupils  with  the  additional  formal  cramming  of  traditional  logic. 
From  my  own  experiences  I  find  it  quite  possible  to  make  logic 
both  stimulating  and  interesting.  But  the  pupils  nevertheless 
generally  get  the  impression  that  its  principles  are  partly  self- 
evident  and  partly  incomprehensible.  On  the  other  hand  Jodl 
correctly  contends  that  psychologj^  is  necessary  and  valuable,  a 
conclusion  borne  out  by  my  own  wide  experiences  with  this  sub- 
ject.    Stimulus  to   introspection   and   exercise   in   the   analysis 

1  On  Departmental  Training  of  Candidates  for  Professorships  in 
Secondary  Schools.    1909.    114  ff.    Esp.  121  f. 


76  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

of  psychical  processes  enrich  the  psychical  inventory  and  con- 
stitute a  valuable  asset  for  life.  Many  of  my  pupils  who  have 
specialized  in  law  and  psychiatry  have  repeatedly  assured  me 
that  the  suggestions  and  facts  acquired  in  the  psychology  classes 
were  of  value  to  them  even  after  many  years.  Jodl  accordingly 
suggests  that  psychology  be  given  in  the  next  to  the  last  year, 
which  likewise  fits  our  conditions  here  in  Austria,  for  the  reason 
that  the  natural  science  instruction  of  the  preceding  year  con- 
sists of  anatomy  and  physiology. 

Jodl  finally  suggests  a  course  in  the  world  theories  of  the 
Greek  philosophers  which  should  be  presented  to  the  pupils  on 
the  basis  of  a  reader  containing  the  most  important  passages  in 
the  original  text  and  in  translation.  I  heartily  accepted  this 
idea  at  the  time  Prof.  Jodl  presented  it  at  the  meeting  of  our 
Vienna  teachers'  association,  and  the  more  I  reflect  on  it  the 
more  do  I  find  that  it  must  be  possible  in  this  way  to  arouse 
the  philosophical  Eros  in  the  pupils.  The  Greeks  were  the 
first  to  discover  the  problems  with  which  we  are  still  occupied 
and  they  have  likewise  created  the  most  important  philosophical 
instruments  of  thought  wnth  which  we  still  operate.  A  teacher 
well  educated  in  philosophy  with  a  well-prepared  reader  would 
certainly  be  in  position  to  introduce  the  pupils  to  the  most  im- 
portant problems  in  metaphysics,  epistemology,  ethics  and  soci- 
ology, by  means  of  free  discussions  of  the  original  passages. 
The  pupils  would  thus  become  familiar  with  the  most  important 
philosophical  instruments  of  thought.  Being  and  becoming 
(change),  reality  and  phenomenon,  cause  and  effect,  idea,  con- 
cept, sense-perception,  matter  and  form,  mind  and  matter,  all 
these  have  been  elaborated  by  the  ancients.  A  great  variety  of 
points  of  contact  between  ancient  and  modern  thought  arise 
naturally.  The  Eleatics  suggest  Spinoza,  Heraclitus  modern 
natural  science  and  evolution,  Plato's  avdfjivrjats  Kantian  aprior- 
ism,  Aristotle's  t,wov  ttoXltlkov  the  modern  theories  of  the  state, 
the  epistemology  of  the  Stoics  Descartes,  &c.  And  another 
circumstance  not  sufficiently  appreciated  hitherto  seems  to  me 
to  be  of  the  greatest  importance,  namely,  the  fact  that  the  ancient 
philosophers  approached  the  profound  problems  of  cosmology  and 
of  theolog}^  with  a  freedom  from  prejudice  which  since  then  is 
no  longer  found.  It  is  this  impartiality  and  neutrality  of  the 
ancient  thinkers,  by  which  they  raised  their  views  above  the 


The  Character  and  Problem   of  the  Secondary  School      77 

sphere  of  the  common  place,  that  adapts  them  so  peculiarly  to 
furnish  the  foundation  of  the  philosophic  training  of  the  young. 
Our  pupils  can  here  be  taught  to  see,  without  being  implicated 
in  party  controversies,  that  there  are  problems  upon  which  man 
will  never  cease  to  reflect.  Here  we  can  likewise  show  them 
the  difficulties  involved  in  discovering  the  wa_vs  which  lead  to 
the  solution  of  these  problems. 

This  brings  us  to  the  end  of  our  constructive  task  and  there 
remains  only  the  matter  of  giving  a  brief  summarj-  of  the  re- 
sults. General  education  consists  of  a  number  of  social  re- 
quirements the  content  of  which  varies  with  the  times.  For  a 
long  time  it  was  regarded  as  an  encyclopedic  summation  of 
facts,  a  conception  which  still  constitutes  the  basis  of  the  courses 
of  study  at  our  higher  schools.  We  have  shown  above  that  this 
conception  is  utterly  untenable  and  pedagogically  impractic- 
able. On  the  other  hand  a  return  to  the  educational  ideal  of  our 
classicists  and  reconstructing  it  on  the  basis  of  modern  psychology 
and  sociology  furnishes  a  theon^  that  is  both  concrete  and  prac- 
tical. 

Viewed  from  this  standpoint,  general  education  consists  in 
the  harmonious  development  of  all  the  rudimentary  functions  in 
man's  psycho-physical  organism.  On  the  physical  side  we  in- 
sist especially  on  the  control  of  the  spontaneous  motor  processes, 
resulting  in  the  strengthening  of  the  will  and  the  advancement 
of  purposefulness.  On  the  mental  side,  as  we  have  shown,  the 
three  primarj'  functions  of  consciousness  are  brought  to  a  higher 
stage  of  development  by  scientific,  aesthetic  and  ethico-social 
training.  Religion  and  philosophy  are  to  unify  and  complete 
this  development. 

4.     The  Aim  of  the  Second.ary  School 

The  aim  of  the  secondary'  is  i,  the  dissemination  of  general 
education  and  2,  the  preparation  for  the  university  and  profes- 
sional school.  We  have  just  given  a  detailed  discussion  of  what 
general  education  is,  or  rather  what  it  should  be.  From  the 
viewpoint  of  the  aim  the  secondary  school  is,  first  of  all,  an 
end  in  itself,  because  general  education  is  valuable  also  to  such 
as  will  not  continue  their  studies  after  completing  the  second- 
ary school.     But,  on  the  other  hand,  general  education  is  here 


78  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

described  as  a  preparation  for  the  professional  school.  It  be- 
comes us  therefore  to  investigate  further  what  really  constitutes 
preparation  for  the  professional  school. 

In  all  civilised  countries  the  secondary  school  finds  its  place 
between  the  elementary  school  and  the  university.  If  we  study 
more  closely  the  way  in  which  education  is  conducted  at  the 
opposite  extremes  between  which  the  secondary  school  exists, 
i.e.,  the  elementary  school  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  university 
on  the  other,  we  will  better  understand  whence  our  pupils  come 
and  whither  we  should  lead  them. 

In  the  elementary  school  the  work  must  all  be  done  within  the 
school  itself.  The  teacher  cannot  and  should  not  expect  the 
children  to  do  any  independent  study  at  their  homes.  The 
object  here  is,  if  possible,  that  all  shall  acquire  the  ability  to 
read,  write  and  cipher.  Constant  repetition  and  untiring  prac- 
tice therefore  constitutes  the  chief  work  of  the  elementary 
teacher.  The  competitive  position  of  the  state,  both  from  the 
military  and  economic  point  of  view  depends  to  no  small  degree 
upon  the  success  of  this  work.  When  the  modern  elementary 
school  teaches  the  children  the  most  important  facts  of  life  in 
their  own  environment  by  the  method  of  observation,  it  in  fact 
indicates  a  tremendous  advance,  but  makes  little  or  no  difference 
in  method.  The  vast  progress  made  in  elementary  pedagogics 
has  made  learning  much  easier  and  more  pleasant  for  the  chil- 
dren and  thus  at  the  same  time  greatly  increased  the  actual  re- 
sults of  instruction.  But  the  direction  which  the  individual 
effort  of  the  pupil  is  to  take  must  constantly  be  carefully  pre- 
scribed. The  teacher  leads  the  pupils  on,  step  by  step,  until 
they  have  reached  their  goal  without  knowing  how.  The  men- 
tal powers  of  the  children  are,  as  a  matter  of  course,  likewise 
increased  in  the  elementary  school,  but  the  real  object  never- 
theless remains  the  acquisition  of  certain  facts  and  abilities  and 
the  means  are  constant  repetition  and  practice  at  school. 

But  at  the  university  and  in  practical  life  the  young  man  is 
thrown  on  his  own  responsibility.  He  is  confronted  with  the 
task  of  mastering  a  department  of  knowledge.  If  his  intellect 
and  will  have  been  sufficiently  disciplined  to  the  required  effort, 
he  will  make  progress,  if  not,  he  must  fail.  The  lectures  and 
exercises  furnish  him  with  the  necessary  guidance  in  his  studies. 
What  use  he  makes  of  it  is  his  own  affair.     He  may  attend  the 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School      79 

lectures  or  shirk  them,  it  is  wholly  his  own  affair  whether  he 
participates  in  the  exercises  or  not.  The  freedom-to-learn 
which  is  accorded  him  in  fact  frequently  becomes  a  most  dan- 
gerous freedom-not-to-learn.  In  elementary  education  the  re- 
sponsibility rests  almost  exclusively  with  the  teacher.  At  the 
university  and  in  practical  life  each  individual  is  responsible  for 
his  own  progress.  In  the  elementary  school  unavoidable  guard- 
ianship, at  the  university  and  in  practical  life  complete  inde- 
pendence and  complete  responsibility. 

The  secondary  school  is  intermediate  between  these  tvvo  and 
its  most  essential  and  most  important  problem  may  be  clearly 
and  concisely  defined  from  its  position.  It  is  the  business  of 
the  secondary  school  to  train  the  pupils  it  receives  from  the 
elementary  school  and  whom  it  is  to  pass  on  to  the  university, 
to  intellectual  independence  and  moral  responsibility.  Every 
teacher  should  be  clearly  conscious  in  each  class  period  of  this 
general  object  of  all  secondary  education.  The  course  of  study 
and  the  method  of  instruction  must  be  determined  and  evaluated 
from  the  viewpoint  of  this  primary  task.  Every  reform  move- 
ment, those  pertaining  to  the  introduction  of  new  subjects  or 
new  methods,  as  well  as  those  bearing  on  the  reduction  or  ex- 
pansion of  the  curriculum,  must  be  viewed  and  criticised  from 
the  viewpoint  of  this  most  important  and  fundamental  problem. 

"We  have  therefore  shown  that  preparation  for  the  university 
involves  being  trained  to  intellectual  independence  and  moral 
responsibility.  Notwithstanding  the  importance  of  this  aim  and 
the  degree  to  which  it  is  adapted  to  furnish  a  common  bond 
between  all  secondary  schools  and  all  secondary  teachers,  we 
must  nevertheless  confess  that  it  is  nothing  more  than  a  mere 
formal  definition.  Such  a  definition  becomes  effective  only 
when  it  is  reduced  to  some  positive,  concrete  statement.  And 
we  deduce  this  from  the  theory  of  general  education  as  we 
have  just  construed  it.  The  secondary  school  undertakes  to 
train  its  pupils  to  intellectual  independence  and  moral  responsi- 
bility by  imparting  to  them  scientific,  aesthetic,  ethico-social 
discipline  and  unifies  and  completes  the  development  of  the 
primary  functions  of  consciousness  through  religious  and  philo- 
sophical education. 

Of  the  elements  of  general  education  that  produce  intellectual 
independence  scientific  discipline  must  receive  first  consideration. 


8o  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

This  implies,  as  observed  above,  practice  in  the  analysis  of  ex- 
perience and  familiarity  with  a  number  of  scientific  instruments 
of  thought.  Here  we  are  at  once  confronted  with  the  danger 
of  falling  once  more  into  the  encyclopedic  conception  which  we 
have  just  repudiated  so  emphatically.  We  might,  for  example, 
say  that  only  he  who  has  analyzed  every  sphere  of  experience 
and  is  familiar  with  the  methods  of  all  the  sciences  possesses 
scientific  education.  We  must  therefore  make  selection  on  the 
basis  of  general  considerations  and  the  evidence  of  history  and 
define  more  explicitly  what  we  really  mean  by  a  scientific  educa- 
tion which  shall  constitute  a  practical,  attainable  aim  for  the 
secondary  school. 

First  of  all,  there  are  two  grand  divisions  of  experience  into 
which  we  must  introduce  our  pupils  if  we  wish  to  impart  scien- 
tific training  to  them.  The  one  is  nature,  the  other  is  the  hu- 
man soul.  We  are  obliged  at  all  events  to  adhere  to  this 
methodological  dualism.  The  mathematical  sciences,  i.e., 
mathematics  and  physics,  introduce  the  pupil  to  the  most  exact 
and  most  profound  consideration  of  nature.  The  intensive  pur- 
suit of  these  disciplines  teaches  the  pupil  the  inexorable  uniform- 
ity of  natural  processes  and  at  the  same  time  to  understand  the 
methods  which  have  enabled  the  human  mind  to  investigate  this 
uniformity.  Even  Plato  recognized  and  appreciated  the  gen- 
eral disciplinary  value  of  mathematics,  and  it  would  be  quite 
superfluous  to  discuss  the  matter  here.  But  we  have  only  re- 
cently begun  to  see  that  this  disciplinary  value  only  attains  vital 
efficiency  in  mathematical  physics  and  that  it  is  greatly  intensi- 
fied by  it.  The  significance  of  the  trigonometrical  formulae  and 
the  comparisons  of  analytical  geometry  make  an  entirely  differ- 
ent impression  if  e.g.,  we  discover,  in  deducing  the  conditions 
upon  which  the  sensitivity  of  a  balance  depends,  or  in  the 
theory  of  the  horizontal  and  diagonal  projection,  that  these 
formulae  correspond  to  objective,  real,  physical  processes,  and 
that  nature  actually  operates  according  to  the  laws  described 
in  the  respective  formulae.  Mathematics,  physics  and  chemistry 
are  subjects  of  instruction  therefore  which  impart  a  very  im- 
portant, and  for  general  education  a  quite  indispensable  part  of 
scientific  training  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  they  introduce  the 
pupil  to  the  scientific  method  of  interpreting  nature.  The 
second  grand   division  of  experience,   and   from  our  point  of 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School      8i 

view  quite  as  important,  consists  of  the  human  mind  and  its 
productions.  In  this  sphere  the  methods  of  the  mathematical 
sciences  lose  their  efficiency.  There  are  a  number  of  natural 
scientists  who  in  fact  have  the  courage  to  believe  that  the  realm 
of  mind  can  likewise  be  vanquished  with  the  weapons  of  natural 
science,  but  the  gravest  and  most  fatal  misunderstandings  are 
inevitable  consequences  of  such  a  program..  As  soon  as  we  ap- 
ply the  purely  physical  concepts  of  work,  energy,  &c.,  to  mental 
processes  these  concepts  are  at  once  transformed  into  something 
quite  different.  We  assume  that  we  are  speaking  of  mental 
processes  whilst  as  a  matter  of  fact  we  are  simply  discussing 
the  physiological  accompaniments.  On  the  other  hand  if  we 
ascribe  the  subjective  processes  individually  familiar  to  every 
one  to  brain  cells  the  intended  physiology  becomes  psychology 
of  the  brain.  There  isn't  any  natural  science  that  leads  into 
the  depths  of  the  human  soul.  Its  methods  and  instruments 
here  fail  absolutely. 

And  yet  there  is  scarcely  anyone  who  would  deny  that  the 
events  transpiring  on  earth  are  to  no  small  degree  determined 
by  the  intellect  and  will  of  man.  The  progress  and  position  of 
nations  still  depend  on  the  intellectual  and  moral  forces  con- 
served within  them.  Even  the  fate  of  the  individual  is  not  the 
result  of  natural  forces  acting  blindly,  but  it  is  materially  in- 
fluenced by  the  spiritual  forces  within  and  about  him.  If  we 
would  therefore  understand  our  environment  and  adjust  our- 
selves to  it  we  must  not  only  seek  to  attain  an  insight  into  the 
workshop  of  nature,  but  likewise  in  the  workshop  of  mind. 
We  must  also  furnish  our  young  people  a  timely  familiarity 
with  this  workshop,  in  order  that  they  may  learn  to  elaborate 
and  place  proper  value  on  the  mental  products  within  their  own 
experience.  There  is  one  well-attested  and  sure  means  of  ac- 
cess to  this  workshop  of  mind,  namely,  the  study  of  language 
and  the  products  of  mind  stored  away  in  language.  But  it  is 
philology  that  is  occupied  with  this  branch  of  study  in  its  widest 
sense. 

The  things  which  appear  in  language,  no  matter  whether 
they  are  statements  which  are  merely  intended  for  the  moment 
or  definite  productions  handed  on  to  succeeding  generations, 
are  not  mere  symbols,  they  are  essential  elements  of  spiritual 
processes.     Language  is  not  simply  the  manifestation  of  thought. 


82  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

It  is  far  more  an  expression  of  the  type  and  mode  of  the 
thought,  feeling  and  will  of  the  individual  and  of  nations. 
The  language  and  linguistic  forms  which  have  been  preserved 
from  various  epochs,  are  nothing  less  than  objectified  human 
mind  which  is  thus  rendered  accessible  to  scientific  investigation. 
The  analytic  effort  of  philologists  assumes  the  task  of  recon- 
structing the  mental  life  which  finds  expression  in  these  forms. 
This  task  is  not  solved  at  the  first  attempt.  It  requires  re- 
peated application.  And  the  effort  thus  applied  produces  a 
kind  of  structural  modification  of  the  organ  of  thought,  the 
change  which  we  describe  as  philological  discipline.  Those 
who  possess  it  immediately  analyze  the  linguistic  forms  with 
which  they  come  in  contact  into  their  parts,  they  know  how 
to  distinguish  the  form  from  the  content,  they  are  able  to  grasp 
comprehensive  productions  more  quickly  and  easily  recognize 
similar  thoughts  under  various  forms  of  expression.  Philo- 
logical discipline  simplifies  every  form  of  scientific  effort.  It 
is  of  as  much  advantage  to  the  natural  scientist  as  the  historian, 
the  jurist,  the  economist  and  the  philosopher. 

The  analysis  of  the  native  tongue  leaves  philological  disci- 
pline incomplete.  We  acquire  the  native  tongue  through  imita- 
tion unconsciously  and  instinctively.  We  use  it  spontaneously, 
readily  understanding  our  fellows  and  making  ourselves  under- 
stood by  them.  We  cannot  quite  see  therefore  that  what  we 
have  otherwise  practiced  "  like  eating  and  drinking,  free,  in 
addition  requires  one,  two,  three."  However,  when  we  under- 
take to  acquire  a  foreign  language  the  separate  words  and 
forms  of  expression  assume  an  entirely  new  significance.  The 
fact  that  we  are  obliged  constantly  to  make  comparisons  be- 
tween the  foreign  language  and  our  own  likewise  brings  the 
power  of  expression  in  the  native  tongue,  both  as  to  its  elements 
and  its  articulated  wholes,  clearly  before  our  consciousness.  As 
Goethe  remarked:  "  He  who  learns  no  foreign  language  knows 
nothing  about  his  own."  The  pursuit  of  both  the  classical 
languages  generally  furnishes  opportunity  for  peculiarly  inten- 
sive philological  training  which  retains  its  value  even  after  the 
vocabularies  and  forms  are  largely  forgotten.  The  pupils  thus 
become  acquainted  with  the  important  products  of  a  civilization 
and  literature  which  not  only  constitutes  the  foundation  but 
is  likewise  still  an  element  of  modern  life.     The  modern  Ian- 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School     83 

guages  of  the  advanced  nations  however  are  also  excellent 
means  for  the  realization  of  philological  training  which  is  valu- 
able for  all  the  sciences.  We  have  above  discussed  the  impor- 
tance of  philological  instruction  for  aesthetic  training,  which 
furthermore  involves  the  intensive  study  of  one's  native  lan- 
guage and  literature. 

We  may  therefore  say:  The  secondary  school  trains  the 
pupil  to  intellectual  independence  by  means  of  scientific  disci- 
pline. This  is  accomplished  most  effectively  by  introducing  the 
pupils  to  the  work-shop  of  nature  through  instruction  in  the 
mathematical  sciences  and  to  the  work-shop  of  the  human  soul 
through  philosophical  discipline. 

Training  to  moral  responsibility,  in  the  manner  described 
above,  is  to  be  accomplished  through  ethico-social  education 
which  consists  in  the  control,  invigoration  and  expansion  of 
the  will. 

We  would  thus  have  a  concrete  definition  of  the  aim  of  the 
secondary  school.  This  definition  of  aim  fits  all  the  categories 
of  the  existing  secondary  schools  of  Germany  and  Austria  and 
may  likewise  be  applied  to  the  majority  of  other  civilized  na- 
tions. We  may  therefore  summarize  our  discussion  on  the 
nature  of  the  secondary  school  in  the  following  propositions: 

1.  The  secondary  school  is  intermediate  between  the  ele- 
mentary school  and  the  univeristy. 

2.  Its  problem  consists  in  training  its  pupils  to  intellectual 
independence  and  moral  responsibility  and  thus  prepare  them 
both  for  the  university  and  for  practical  life. 

3.  It  must  solve  this  problem  by  imparting  general  education, 
the  elements  of  which  include  scientific,  aesthetic,  ethico-social, 
religious  and  philosophical  training. 

4.  The  scientific  training  is  to  be  accomplished  by  the  com- 
bination of  discipline  in  mathematical  science  and  philosophy. 

We  must  now  consider  the  matter  of  the  construction  of  the 
course  of  study  of  a  secondary  school  based  on  the  principles 
set  forth  above. 

5.  The  Course  of  Study  in  the  Secondary  School 

Systematically  constructed  courses  of  study,  deduced  from 
the  principles  of  pedagog>^  actually  exist  only  in  handbooks  in 


84  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

pedagog}^  All  the  courses  of  study  in  actual  existence  in  the 
advanced  schools  of  our  age  as  a  matter  of  fact  are  a  product 
of  historical  tradition  and  the  confused  mass  of  the  public 
opinion  of  the  present  age.  But  this  is  readily  understood  if 
we  recall  that  general  education  is  first  of  all  nothing  more 
than  the  sum-total  of  social  requirements.  Historical  tradition 
represents  the  social  requirements  of  the  past  and  the  public 
opinion  of  the  present  time  presumes  to  tell  us  what  elements 
of  education  the  present  generation  needs.  It  is  therefore  no 
easy  task  to  select  from  the  wishes,  complaints,  well  meant  or 
notoriety-seeking  suggestions  which  are  constantly  appearing  in 
the  thousands  of  newspapers,  magazines  and  pamphlets,  what 
the  intelligent  portion  of  society  actually  wants.  We  need 
not  wonder  therefore  if  the  board  of  public  instruction  seeks  to 
preserve  the  courses  approved  by  age  longer  than  many  an  en- 
thusiast among  our  school  reformers  would  desire  and  only 
slowly  and  gradually  recognize  what  is  urged  upon  them  as 
"  the  demands  of  the  age." 

It  would  certainly  be  a  safer  mode  of  procedure  if  the  de- 
partment of  public  instruction  would  determine  upon  their 
measures  from  broad  general  viewpoints  and  well  established, 
scientific  principles.  There  would  at  least  be  less  ambiguity 
and  indecision  in  the  various  edicts  and  regulations. 

I  shall  therefore  endeavor  to  outline  a  scheme  for  a  general 
course  of  study  in  the  secondary  schools,  deduced  from  scientific 
principles  and  at  the  same  time  leaving  room  for  the  differentia- 
tion and  growth  demanded  by  the  wealth  of  modern  life. 

A  school's  course  of  instruction  is  certainly  one  of  the  most 
important  means  for  the  realization  of  its  general  educational 
aim.  It  is  likewise  evident  that  the  matter  of  first  importance 
in  devising  the  course  must  be  the  intellectual  development  of 
the  pupil.  Furthermore  we  have  above  described  that  part  of 
general  education  which  bears  on  the  development  of  the  intellec- 
tual functions,  so  far  as  concerns  the  purposes  of  the  secondary 
school  as  scientific  discipline.  The  surest  way  of  accomplishing 
this,  as  shown  above,  is  by  the  combination  of  mathematico-scien- 
tific  and  philological  instruction.  If  we  recall  further  that 
philological  discipline  cannot  be  attained  by  instruction  in  the 
native  tongue  alone,  we  will  then  have  laid  a  firm  foundation 
for  our  course  of  instruction.     Every  secondary  school  must 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School      85 

therefore  at  least  teach  the  following  subjects:  A.  Mathe- 
matics and  physics  (including  chemistr}')  ;  B.  the  native  tongue 
and  two  foreign  languages.  This  likewise  furnishes  an  op- 
portunity for  varied  differentiation,  according  to  whether  the 
instruction  in  languages  makes  both  the  classical  languages,  or 
the  modern  languages,  or  even  a  combination  of  the  two,  the 
basis.  But  the  principle  of  combining  humanistic  and  realistic 
training,  or,  as  this  principle  has  been  called,  utraquism,  applies 
to  all  secondary  schools.  In  these  fundamental  branches  in- 
tensive work  is  indispensable,  for  it  is  only  by  this  means  that 
the  pupil  receives  real  scientific  discipline  from  them.  This 
utraquism  may  be  described  as  objective  utraquism,  since  it 
consists  of  the  two  great  reality-complexes,  nature  and  mind, 
as  we  have  shown  in  detail  above. 

The  question  might  then  be  raised  W'hether  it  would  not  be 
well  to  be  satisfied  with  this  foundation  of  the  course  of  study. 
There  are  many  reasons  in  favor  of  such  a  simplification.  It 
would  require  fewer  school  periods,  and  we  could  instruct  the 
pupils  very  gradually  and  very  thoroughly  without  interruption. 
It  would  also  leave  more  time  for  the  private  inclinations  of 
the  pupil,  for  play,  sport,  music,  and  the  general  cultivation  of 
individuality.  Public  opinion  would  nevertheless  condemn  such 
a  reduction,  and  justifiably  so,  because  such  program  would 
leave  whole  series  of  important  life-problems  outside  the  pupil's 
horizon.  This  foundation  therefore  requires  expansion  and 
supplementation. 

With  a  view  to  realizing  a  practical  principle  for  this  ex- 
pansion I  propose  the  following  suggestion:  a  subjective  or 
psychological  utraquism  should  be  combined  with  the  objective 
or  scientific  utraquism  which  consists  of  a  combination  of  phi- 
lolog>'  and  mathematical  natural  science.  That  is  to  say,  the 
scientific  training  of  our  pupils  requires,  in  addition  to  the 
branches  which  are  intended  to  produce  severe  mental  disci- 
pline, such  subjects  also  as  furnish  inspiration  and  opportunity 
for  the  unrestricted  development  of  the  intellectual  functions. 
This  would  involve  the  grouping  of  the  subjects  taught  in  the 
secondar}^  schools  under  two  general  heads.  On  the  one  hand 
they  would  divide  into  the  philological  and  mathematico-natural 
science  branches,  on  the  other  into  the  "  disciplinary^  "  and  "  in- 
spirational." 


86  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

This  would  furnish  an  articulation  of  the  course  of  study 
which  I  regard  as  a  pressing  need.  That  is  to  say  whenever 
all  branches  are  placed  on  an  equal  footing  the  inevitable  tend- 
ency to  expand  in  every  subject  involved  in  the  progress  of 
science  must  necessarily  lead  to  an  over-burdening  of  courses, 
and  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  has  done  so.  In  Germany  the  com- 
plaints against  over-burden  begin  about  the  end  of  the  third 
decade  of  last  century.  In  Austria  we  hear  them  repeatedly 
since  the  seventies,  after  the  more  vigorous  development  of 
parliamentary  life.  The  department  of  education  tries  to  cor- 
rect this  evil  by  a  reduction  and  simplification  of  the  subject 
matter  of  instruction,  as  well  as  by  other  methods  of  relief. 
But  this  method  cannot  be  continued  indefinitely  and  it  likewise 
involves  very  serious  dangers.  By  avoiding  the  Scylla  of  an 
over-burdened  course  we  encounter  the  Charybdis  of  superfi- 
ciality. If  we  proceed  still  farther  by  this  method  of  increasing 
simplification  the  secondary  school  can  no  longer  fulfill  its  mis- 
sion of  furnishing  a  higher  general  education,  preparation  for 
the  university  and  selecting  the  capable  and  industrious. 

On  the  other  hand  both  dangers  may  be  avoided  —  that  of  the 
over-burdened  course  and  that  of  superficiality  —  if  the  sub- 
jects are  divided  into  "  disciplinary  "  and  "  inspirational  "  and 
this  division  be  made  the  criterion  for  the  administration  of  the 
curriculum  of  the  secondary  school.  In  the  disciplinary  branches 
thorough  recitation  work  at  school,  previous  preparation  of  les- 
sons by  the  pupil,  thorough  mastery  of  the  subject  matter  of 
instruction  and  the  thought-instruments  involved  arc  indis- 
pensable requirements.  Those  who  fail  to  keep  up  with  their 
classes  through  incapacity  or  lack  of  industry  must  be  dismissed 
from  the  school.  We  demand  the  best  conceivable  methods  of 
instruction  in  the  disciplinary  branches,  and  in  estimating  the 
work  of  the  pupils  we  must  insist  on  conscientious  and  rigorous 
effort.  As  a  matter  of  course  not  all  pupils  are  equally  gifted 
for  both  groups,  i.e.,  for  natural  science  and  for  philology. 
Notwithstanding  this  however  I  could  not  by  any  means  ap- 
prove the  freedom  of  election  which  is  at  present  insisted  on  so 
largely.  The  onesidedness  of  endowment  for  the  one  or  the 
other  group  is  by  no  means  as  absolute  in  actual  experience  as 
is  often  supposed.  The  pupils  who  are  specially  interested  in 
mathematics  and  physics  are  as  a  rule  capable,  with  a  proper 


The  Character  and  Problem   of  the  Secondary  School      87 

arrangement  of  instruction,  of  acquiring  without  difficulty  the 
philological  discipline  necessary  for  every  scientific  education. 
Those  who  show  an  aptness  for  philological  studies  are  likewise 
capable  of  acquainting  themselves  with  the  thought  instruments 
of  the  mathematical  sciences.  So  far  as  pertains  to  "  disciplin- 
ary "  branches  therefore  I  still  insist  without  qualification,  on 
objective  utraquism  because,  as  I  am  convinced,  it  is  this  alone 
that  will  guarantee  the  actual  realization  of  the  minimum  of 
scientific  training.  A  thorough  mastery  of  the  disciplinary 
branches  is  possible  however  without  any  danger  of  over-burden. 
The  student  of  mediocre  capacity  can  satisfy  even  strict  re- 
quirements with  two  periods  a  day,  provided  the  work  of  the 
school  is  done  as  intensively  as  the  importance  of  the  matter 
requires. 

On  the  other  hand  I  conceive  the  administration  of  the 
"  inspirational  "  subjects  in  an  entirely  different  manner.  In 
these  subjects  the  work  should  really  all  be  done  in  the  school. 
The  teacher  would  have  to  direct  all  his  energy  and  all  his 
pedagogic  skill  towards  quickening  the  interest  of  his  pupils 
and  enlisting  their  active  cooperation.  The  memory  work 
would  have  to  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  and  this  minimum 
would  have  to  be  noted  and  impressed  by  constant  repetition 
within  the  school  itself.  Failures  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  in 
these  "  inspirational  "  subjects  should  really  never  occur.  We 
will  likewise  find  as  a  rule  that  wherever  the  results  in  the 
"  inspirational "  subjects  are  wholly  negative,  there  will  be 
correspondingly  less  accomplished  in  the  "  disciplinary  "  sub- 
jects. But  in  the  matter  of  promotions  the  "  inspirational  " 
subjects  must  not  be  regarded  as  nearly  so  important  as  the 
"  disciplinary." 

What  branches  therefore  are  to  be  regarded  as  such  "  inspira- 
tional "  subjects?  According  to  my  notion  each  of  the  tAvo 
"  disciplinary  "  groups  need  to  be  supplemented  by  "  inspira- 
tional "  subjects  within  their  own  field.  Mathematics  and 
physics,  which  reveal  the  uniformity  of  inorganic  nature,  must 
first  of  all  be  supplemented  in  the  direction  of  acquainting  the 
pupil  with  the  world  of  organisms.  Botany  and  zoology  in- 
cluding anthropology  must  therefore  be  regarded  as  such  in- 
dispensable supplements  of  the  mathematico-scientific  groups. 
The  results  and  the  thought-instruments  of  modern  biology  are 


88  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

not  yet  sufficiently  clear  and  concise  to  adapt  these  subjects  to  the 
purpose  of  scientific  discipline.  They  should  therefore  simply 
enlist  an  interest  in  observing  the  animal  and  vegetable  king- 
doms, and,  as  far  as  possible  by  examining  the  objects  them- 
selves, show  how  to  regard,  describe  and  classify  the  organisms. 
In  botany  it  is  possible  to  place  an  example  of  the  subject  under 
consideration  in  the  hands  of  each  pupil  and  permit  him  to  form 
a  conception  of  its  structure  and  various  parts  by  an  analysis 
which  he  has  himself  performed.  Under  no  conditions  should 
the  memoriter  learning  of  the  names  of  many  animals  and 
plants  be  required.  What  the  pupils  learn  and  acquire  in  the 
school  work  and  excursions  must  be  sufficient. 

I  regard  geography  as  a  further  supplementation  of  mathe- 
matico-scientific  instruction,  with  which  geology  and  mineral- 
ogy' are  readily  combined.  The  greatly  improved  methods  of 
instruction  in  geography  make  it  easy  to  develop  the  funda- 
mental concepts  of  physical  geography  through  sense  percep- 
tion. Exercise  in  the  use  of  maps,  which  I  regard  as  the  most 
important  result  of  the  study  of  geography,  can  certainly  be 
accomplished  within  the  class  periods,  and  if  the  teacher  suc- 
ceeds in  awakening  the  interest  of  the  pupils  they  will  be  glad 
to  refer  to  their  atlas  at  home.  The  clear  images  which  are 
thus  impressed  on  their  memories  must  suffice.  The  memoriz- 
ing of  names  and  figures  must  be  limited  to  a  minimum. 
Mathematical  and  astronomical  geography  are  readily  and  or- 
ganically correlated  with  physics  and  the  strictly  scientific  char- 
acter of  this  discipline  likewise  thus  attains  clearer  force.  Po- 
litical geography  and  ethnography  as  well  as  everything  political 
and  statistical  on  the  other  hand  is  well  adapted  to  instruction 
in  history. 

The  second  group  of  "  disciplinary  "  subjects,  which  I  have 
briefly  described  as  "  philology,"  requires  a  very  important 
supplementation,  furnished  by  the  study  of  history.  Philology 
is  constantly  becoming  more  historical,  and  this  applies  to  both 
classical  and  modern  philology.  The  historical  foundation 
therefore  becomes  increasingly  important.  On  the  other  hand 
however  the  intimate  correlation  of  history  with  philology  gives 
the  former  an  assthetic  and  ethical  point  of  contact  which  is  of 
vast  importance.  According  to  the  famous  saying  of  Goethe 
the  best  thing  about  history  consists  of  the  enthusiasm  which 


The  Character  and  Problem  of  the  Secondary  School      89 

it  inspires.  And  as  a  matter  of  fact  we  must  insist  that  the 
teaching  of  history  is  not  a  process  of  hammering  a  list  of 
names  and  dates  into  the  heads  of  the  pupils,  but  a  filling  of 
their  souls  with  new  energ}^ 

The  history  of  one's  native  country  and  of  the  ancients  is 
peculiarly  adapted  to  this  purpose.  Both  are  also  readily  cor- 
related with  philological  study.  In  my  opinion  the  best  re- 
sults would  be  obtained  if  the  work  in  history  were  in  charge 
of  the  language  teachers.  The  teacher  of  German,  who  has 
been  under  no  necessity  of  making  any  intensive  study  of  history, 
could  quite  readily  acquire  the  ability'  to  teach  German  history 
and  even  ancient  history  is  not  beyond  his  reach.  It  must  even 
be  easier  for  the  classical  philologist  to  present  ancient  history, 
and  the  teachers  of  modern  languages  have  frequent  occasion 
to  make  a  thorough  study  of  the  history  of  the  nations  whose 
languages  they  are  studying.  I  am  decidedly  of  the  opinion 
that  the  teaching  of  histor)%  the  method  of  which  is  unfor- 
tunately still  but  slightly  developed,  could  be  improved  by  such 
a  correlation  with  philology  and  at  the  same  time  be  made  a 
living  reality. 

The  teachers  who  are  at  present  dealing  exclusively  with 
the  subjects  which  I  have  described  as  "  inspirational  "  will 
likely  find  objection  to  the  arrangement  of  the  course  of  study 
here  suggested.  They  may  think  that  they  will  thus  drop  in  the 
estimation  of  their  pupils  and  colleagues  because  they  would 
likewise  be  reduced  to  the  position  of  teachers  of  the  second 
rank.  But  this  difficulty  could  easily  be  overcome  by  recon- 
structing the  system  of  examinations  and  the  distribution  of 
subjects  according  to  the  suggestions  here  made.  Each  teacher 
who  is  qualified  for  a  "  disciplinary'  "  subject,  could  also  easily 
acquire  the  ability  to  teach  an  "  inspirational  "  subject.  The 
distribution  of  subjects  would  then  have  to  be  made  so  as  to 
give  each  teacher  both  disciplinary  and  inspirational  branches. 
This  would  offer  the  not  inconsiderable  additional  advantage  of 
introducing  helpful  alternation  into  the  work  of  the  teacher, 
which  would  enable  the  teacher  to  make  different  sides  of  his 
personality  felt.  The  teacher  who  has  been  working  diligently 
for  two  successive  periods  in  mathematics  and  held  the  at- 
tention of  the  pupils  will  find  it  refreshing  to  devote  a  third 
hour  to  geography  where  he  can  tell  of  his  travels  and  thus 


90  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

inspire  and  hold  the  attention  of  his  pupils.  The  teacher  also 
learns  to  understand  the  individuality  of  the  pupil  better  if  he 
has  the  opportunity  of  observing  their  conduct  in  both  the 
"disciplinary"  and  "inspirational"  subjects.  In  brief:  The 
more  I  reflect  the  greater  seem  the  advantages  of  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  subject  matter  of  instruction  here  suggested. 

The  course  of  study  arranged  in  this  way  will  still  require 
completion  by  religion  and  philosophy  as  indicated  above.  The 
aesthetic  training  of  the  pupils,  as  has  been  frequently  observed, 
is  really  an  important  part  of  the  instruction  in  language.  But 
in  addition  to  this  we  should  recommend  for  this  specific  pur- 
pose the  taking  up  of  drawing  because  it  simplifies  and  refines 
the  conception  of  aesthetic  form. 

The  care  of  the  body  and  the  discipline  of  the  will,  as  we  have 
likewise  shown,  requires  the  introduction  of  gymnastics  and 
manual  training. 

This  would  furnish  a  systematically  constructed  course  of 
study,  which  so  far  as  content  is  concerned,  differs  but  little  from 
what  is  in  actual  operation.  The  principle  of  division  into  "  dis- 
ciplinary "  and  "  inspirational  "  branches  is  the  only  thing  that 
is  new.  And  I  should  like  to  commend  this  principle  once  more 
to  the  careful  consideration  of  my  colleagues  and  to  the  officers 
of  public  instruction. 

We  must  now  turn  to  the  consideration  of  the  things  which 
a  teacher  in  a  secondary  school  thus  organized  may  be  expected 
to  accomplish  in  a  scientific,  didactic  and  ethical  way,  in  order 
that  our  pedagogic  and  educational  aim  thus  clearly  circum- 
scribed and  characterized  may  also  be  actually  achieved. 


I 


CHAPTER  III 

THE    SCIENTIFIC    PROBLEM    OF   THE    SECONDARY   TEACHERS 

I.     The  General  Problem 

IF  then,  the  aim  of  the  secondary  school,  discussed  in  detail 
in  chapter  two,  is  to  be  realized,  each  teacher,  no  matter 
what  branch  he  has  chosen  for  his  special  field,  must  study  the 
fundamental  principles  of  pedagogy  and  give  some  attention  tc 
the  aim  and  the  method  for  the  guidance  of  the  pupils.  Among 
the  general  scientific  problems,  which  are  obligatory  on  all 
teachers,  it  seems  to  me  therefore  that  the  scientific  pursuit 
of  pedagogics  is  the  first  and  most  important. 

The  opposition  to  everything  pertaining  to  didactics  and 
methods  which  has  been  prevalent  among  us  for  a  considerable 
period  seems  now  to  be  happily  on  the  wane.  The  charge  that 
we  are  scholars  but  not  teachers,  that  we  lecture  instead  of 
instruct  and  educate  has  been  made  too  emphatically  and  too 
loudly.  Educational  administrators  have  been  ver>'  active  in 
organizing  and  developing  schools  of  education  during  recent 
years.  But  not^vithstanding  this  fact  there  are  still  many 
who  regard  the  study  of  pedagogy^  at  the  university  as  unneces- 
sary, useless  and  even  harmful.  At  the  university,  so  they  say, 
the  student  should  devote  himself  wholly  to  the  science  of  his 
chosen  department.  He  should  study  and  investigate  without 
being  hampered  by  any  thought  of  his  future  vocation,  so  as 
above  all  else  to  become  skilled  in  his  department.  The  ma- 
jority of  hearers,  it  is  added,  likewise  have  no  interest  in 
pedagogy  during  their  university  years.  They  want  to  learn 
and  are  not  concerned  about  the  fact  that  they  are  sometime 
later  on  expected  to  teach. 

I  am  utterly  opposed  to  this  view  so  frequently  heard  and 
advocated  even  by  so  famous  a  pedagogue  as  Fries,  both  from 
the  viewpoint  of  theorj'  and  likewise  on  the  basis  of  the  facts. 
I  feel  on  the  contrary  that  whoever  goes  to  the  university  with 

91 


92  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

a  view  to  preparation  for  teaching  cannot  discover  too  soon 
what  it  really  means  to  be  a  teacher.  He  should  understand 
as  early  as  possible  what  really  constitutes  his  future  vocation, 
the  problem  of  each  and  every  education  and  the  qualities  of 
personality  it  requires.  Pedagogy  is  no  longer  an  addendum 
of  philosophy  and  its  principles  must  no  longer  be  deduced 
from  a  completed  philosophical  system.  We  have  already  for 
a  long  time  been  working  on  a  system  of  education  which, 
resting  on  a  biological,  psychological,  historical  and  especially 
sociological  basis,  is  using  the  inductive  and  even  the  experi- 
mental methods  with  increasing  effect.  Education  as  a  matter 
of  course  is  now  as  always  the  conscious  influence  of  the  mature 
on  the  immature  pupils,  but  the  conditions  and  aims  of  this 
influence  now  appear  in  an  entirely  different  light.  The  zealous 
pedagogues  of  the  eighteenth  century  regarded  the  pupil  after 
the  analogy  of  a  mass  of  tones  from  which  the  teacher  was  sup- 
posed to  be  able  to  produce  whatever  form  he  chose.  We  now 
know  on  the  basis  of  the  theory  of  evolution  that  every  new-born 
child  enters  the  world  with  very  definite,  inherited  psychical  dis- 
positions. It  is  the  business  of  education  to  recognize  these  ex- 
isting germs,  to  cultivate  and  bring  them  to  their  full  develop- 
ment, which  essentially  can  and  should  be  nothing  more  than 
an  aid  in  development. 

Modern  pedagogy  differs  from  the  older  on  still  another 
point.  The  new  humanistic  educational  ideal,  as  conceived  for 
example  by  a  William  v.  Humboldt,  regards  the  all-round  and 
harmonious  development  of  personality  as  the  only,  as  well  as 
the  highest  aim  of  education.  They  seek  to  realize  the  con- 
ception of  personality  as  an  end  in  itself  so  vigorously  empha- 
sized by  Kant  in  the  second  formulation  of  the  categorical  im- 
perative, and  reject  every  reference  to  social  utility  with  the 
greatest  finality.  Hence  William  v.  Humboldt  was  dismissed 
from  his  office  in  1791  because  he  had  vaguely  conceived  the 
idea  that  the  only  thing  really  worth  while  consists  of  person- 
ality. This  individualistic  conception,  which  likewise  charac- 
terized Goethe's  ideas,  was  unable  to  resist  the  historical  and 
social-intellectual  trend  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Society  im- 
periously commands  the  individual  who  has  become  independent 
through  social  differentiation  to  return  to  its  service.  Perhaps 
too  imperiously,  for  already  in  the  twentieth  century  we  again 


The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary   Teacher      93 

hear  the  crj'  for  the  free  development  of  personality.  But  our 
insight  into  the  human  soul  and  into  human  society  now  teaches 
us  that  man  who  is  born  into  society  is  capable  of  developing 
a  complete  and  vigorous  personality  only  as  he  places  his  en- 
ergies in  the  service  of  a  social  fact  which  freely  inspires  his 
complete  devotion.  (See  above,  pp.  8,  22.)  That  is  to  say  that 
in  our  day  even  individualism  has  a  social  basis  and  we  must 
say  that  one  of  the  chief  duties  of  every  educator  is  to  enable 
his  pupils  to  understand  the  relations  of  the  individual  to  the 
whole  and  impress  upon  them  the  obligations  which  this  in- 
volves. Modern  pedagogy  is  therefore  characterized  by  the 
fact  that  it  must  be  empirical,  evolutional  and  social. 

We  shall  have  occasion  farther  on,  in  connection  with  the 
discussion  of  the  didactic  problems  of  the  secondary  teacher, 
to  emphasize  the  important  didactic  principles  which  apply  spe- 
cially to  instruction  in  the  advanced  schools.  We  are  at  pres- 
ent concerned  with  the  scientific  pursuit  of  pedagog}^  and  a  brief 
mention  of  such  parties  as  specially  require  consideration  for 
our  vocation  must  sufHce. 

In  my  opinion  it  is  of  primary  importance  that  every  pros- 
pective teacher  should  be  concerned  about  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  his  profession.  And  he  will  find  these  of  the  greatest 
advantage  to  him  if  he  approaches  them  from  the  evolutional 
and  sociological  viewpoint.  And  more  than  this,  it  seems  to 
me  important  that  every  teacher  should  thoroughly  understand 
the  school  in  which  he  is  working,  both  as  to  its  organization 
and  its  relation  to  the  body  politic  and  the  social  organism  in 
general.  The  method  of  the  particular  subject  is  rather  a 
problem  of  didactics.  But  I  should  nevertheless  regard  it  de- 
sirable that  the  universities  should  give  courses  on  methods  in 
the  most  important  departments,  so  that  the  students  in  the 
closing  semesters  of  their  work  might  at  least  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of  getting  some  special  preparation  for  their  future  work. 

Anyone  who  takes  up  the  study  of  pedagog}^  quickly  sees  that 
some  familiarity  with  psychology  is  indispensable.  The  neces- 
sity of  psychological  training  for  ever>'  teacher  is  so  generally 
acknowledged  at  present  that  I  need  not  elaborate  this  point  in 
detail.  I  shall  therefore  confine  myself  to  a  few  suggestions 
as  to  what  in  psychology  is  of  most  importance  to  the  teacher 
and  how  he  may  acquire  a  knowledge  of  it  most  readily  and 


94  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

most  quickly.  The  matter  of  first  importance  is  the  attainment 
and  grasp  of  the  psychological  point  of  view.  By  this  I  mean 
that  the  teacher's  whole  being  must  be  thoroughly  permeated 
with  the  insight  that  in  every  moment  of  his  didactic  and  peda- 
gogic activity  he  must  constantly  transplant  himself  into  the 
souls  of  his  pupils.  The  teacher  must  never  forget  that  it  is 
the  pupils  who  must  acquire  certain  materials  of  instruction, 
and  that  the  only  way  in  which  they  can  do  this  is  by  means 
of  the  rudiments,  capacities,  or,  to  express  it  generally,  the 
psychical  dispositions  which  they  already  possess.  Everj'one 
who  wishes  to  teach  must  certainly  understand  this.  And  this 
is  such  a  self-evident  fact  that  it  is  actually  embarrassing  even 
to  make  any  specific  reference  to  such  banalities.  But  the  ex- 
perienced school-man,  who  is  acquainted  with  his  colleagues, 
knows  that  this  self-evident  requirement  is  nevertheless  but 
relatively  seldom  realized.  Many  teachers  cannot  understand 
that  their  pupils  are  not  interested  in  their  subjects,  in  fact 
they  refuse  to  concede  that  it  is  their  business  to  awaken  interest. 
They  fail  to  see  how  it  is  that  this  or  that  is  so  hard  for  their 
pupils  to  comprehend,  that  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the 
subject  has  been  covered  repeatedly  they  still  continue  to  make 
mistakes.  And  teachers  are  too  prone  to  ascribe  the  cause  of 
the  failure  to  laziness,  indolence,  poor  preparation,  or  even  to 
the  perversity  of  the  pupils.  This  however  is  wholly  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  teachers  of  the  higher  schools  are  as  yet  but 
poorly  trained  in  psycholog5\  Psychological  training  implies 
first  of  all  practice  in  the  anal3'sis  of  psychical  processes  and 
knowledge  of  the  psychical  laws  discovered  hitherto.  Anyone 
who  understands  the  associative  and  apperceptive  course  of 
ideas,  anyone  who  is  familiar  with  the  conditions  and  limits  of 
the  retentiveness  of  memory,  anyone  who  has  a  clear  conception 
of  the  fundamental  importance  of  the  sphere  of  feeling  and 
will,  will  at  least  be  preserved  from  the  error  of  requiring  or 
expecting  the  impossible.  He  will  arrange  his  work  of  teaching 
in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  attention  and  the  phenomena  of 
fatigue,  and  likewise  reach  the  conclusion  that  the  cause  of 
certain  failures  is  not  always  the  fault  of  the  pupils,  but  fre- 
quently that  of  the  teachers. 

The  constant  use  of  the  latest  achievements  in  psychology  and 
the  unremitting  endeavor  to  extend  and  deepen  it  are  among 


The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary   Teacher      95 

the  most  important  of  the  didactic  obligations  of  the  teacher. 
We  shall  return  to  the  discussion  of  these  matters  farther  on. 

An  acquaintance  with  experimental  methods  in  psychology 
can  best  be  acquired  from  Wundt's  Human  and  Animal  Psy- 
chology. William  James'  Principles  of  Psychology  still  re- 
mains the  most  important  work  in  introspective  psychologj^  and 
should  be  studied  by  every  one.  James'  Talks  to  Teachers  is 
likewise  ver>^  rich  and  suggestive  for  the  teacher.  The  care- 
fully compiled  results  of  experimental  investigation  in  Max 
Offner's  books  on  Memory  and  Fatigue  (Trans,  by  Whipple) 
are  exceedingly  valuable. 

The  matter  of  greatest  importance  is  this,  namely,  that  the 
teacher  acquire  the  psjxhological  point  of  view*  as  early  in  his 
vocational  career  as  possible  and  that  he  retains  it  throughout 
the  period  of  his  service.  I  might  also  suggest  that  the  teacher 
with  psychological  training  and  interest  will  here  likewise  find 
a  fruitful  field  for  productive  authorship.  The  school  fur- 
nishes abundant  opportunity  for  observations  which  are  entirely 
spontaneous.  At  present  the  theory  of  various  characteristic 
types  and  especially  the  differential  psychology  of  the  pupil  in 
the  process  of  development  is  highly  important.  Stanley  Hall's 
comprehensive  work,  Adolescence,  furnishes  an  abundance  of 
suggestive  material. 

The  bearing  of  what  is  called  philosophical  training  in  the 
narrower  sense  is  somewhat  different  from  psychology.  I  should 
myself  certainly  be  the  last  to  depreciate  the  value  of  a  thor- 
ough acquaintance  with  philosophy.  From  wide  observation  I 
am  more  and  more  convinced  that  philosophy  is  more  a  per- 
sonal matter  than  a  matter  of  scientific  need.  Philosophy  is 
more  a  matter  of  life  than  of  learning.  A  philosophy  which 
has  been  laboriously  gathered  from  comprehensive  reading, 
which  has  not  been  vitally  and  personally  assimilated  and 
constructed,  certainly  cannot  so  permeate  the  soul  as  to  be 
transformed  into  its  essence.  But  it  is  only  such  that  in  truth 
deserves  the  name  of  philosophy.  Anyone  who  feels  the  need 
of  penetrating  beyond  the  common-place  experiences  of  life  and 
the  positive  results  of  his  science  to  a  consistent  world-view  in 
terms  of  his  own  thinking,  will  himself  discover  the  ways  and 
means  to  realize  his  purpose.  But  it  is  certainly  highly  de- 
sirable that  many  of  the  secondary  teachers  possess  the  philo- 


96  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

sophical  Eros,  and  everything  should  be  done  to  cultivate  and 
develop  this  impulse.  But  those  who  are  not  brought  to  a 
genuine  philosophical  wonder  will  never  profit  much  from  a 
stud_v  of  philosophical  treatises  enforced  by  the  certificate  re- 
quirements. A  skillful  specialist  with  good  psj'chological  train- 
ing will  do  good  work  without  philosophy  and  bring  the  dis- 
ciplinary power  contained  in  his  subject  to  effective  results. 

The  philosophical  training  of  the  teacher  acts  most  vitally 
and  hence  most  advantageously  when  he  starts  with  his  own 
special  field  and  seeks  to  advance  to  conclusions  or  principles 
of  greater  generality.  Personally  I  have  been  led  to  the  study 
of  the  psychology  of  language  by  classical  philology  and  then, 
through  the  appointment  to  teach  philosophical  propaedeutic, 
extended  my  studies  to  a  broader  field.  The  Germanist  and  the 
modern  philologist  will  have  similar  experiences  in  his  field. 
He  may  perhaps  also  be  led  to  the  problems  of  poetics  and 
thence  to  aesthetics  and  the  philosophy  of  art.  The  historian 
is  most  likely  to  be  attracted  to  the  study  of  the  j'oungest  philo- 
sophical discipline,  sociology',  and  thence  to  the  philosophy  of 
history  which  has  recently  come  more  into  vogue  again.  The 
mathematician  and  physicist  on  the  other  hand  will  naturally 
be  concerned  with  the  epistemological  bases  of  natural  science 
which  will  also  furnish  him  with  information  on  the  origin, 
significance  and  meaning  of  the  fundamental  concepts  of  his 
science;  such  as  space,  time,  force  and  energy,  which  he  will 
find  useful  in  instruction. 

But  there  is  one  branch  of  philosophical  study  with  which 
every  teacher  should  be  acquainted.  I  refer  to  the  historv^  of 
philosophy.  Even  those  who  do  not  feel  the  impulse  to  inde- 
pendent philosophizing  can  acquire  the  most  important  facts. 
A  knowledge  of  these  facts  is  however  of  vast  importance  in 
every  department  of  instruction.  The  Austrian  Instructions 
require  the  teacher  of  classical  philology  to  give  a  resume  of 
the  presocratic  philosophy  as  an  introduction  to  Plato,  and  he 
must  self-evidently  understand  the  philosophy  of  Socrates  and 
Plato  in  order  to  interpret  the  dialogues  correctly.  So  likewise 
the  thorough  understanding  of  the  philosophical  writings  of 
Cicero  requires  a  knowledge  of  Stoicism,  Epicureanism  and  the 
philosophy  of  the  Academy.  The  same  is  true  in  many  re- 
spects in   the  case  of   Horace,   especially  in   reference   to   the 


The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary  Teacher      97 

Epistles.  But  if  the  classical  philologist  is  acquainted  not  only 
with  ancient  philosophy  but  likewise  with  the  modern  he  will 
be  in  position  to  inspire  an  entirely  new  life  into  the  lessons  of 
Plato.  And  according  to  my  view  a  more  profound  under- 
standing of  Plato's  Apology  requires  that  the  ethical  principles 
it  contains  be  thoroughly  explained  in  the  light  of  modern  life, 
and  I  have  found  great  satisfaction  tvtry  time  we  read  the 
Apology  in  the  eager  participation  and  lively  interest  manifested 
by  the  pupils  in  such  expositions.  The  combination  of  the 
ancient  with  the  most  modern  philosophy  impressed  itself  upon 
me  still  more  clearly  as  I  once  attempted  this  method  in  the 
reading  of  the  Gorgias  with  the  pupils  of  the  eighth  class. 
(Prima.)  I  directed  the  attention  of  the  pupils  to  how  great 
an  extent  Frederick  Nietzsche  appropriated  the  ideas  expressed 
by  the  youthful  Callicles  in  this  dialogue,  and  I  could  likewise 
show  them  the  triumphant  superiority  with  which  Socrates  re- 
futed these  views  which  are  being  so  enthusiastically  adopted  by 
our  modern  youth.  The  classes  were  mutually  inspiring  to  both 
teacher  and  pupils  and  they  also  contributed  much  towards  re- 
moving the  confusion,  frequently  quite  serious,  produced  by 
Nietzsche. 

The  Germanist,  in  order  to  interpret  Lessing's  Laokoon, 
Schiller's  philosophical  Lyrics,  Goethe's  Faust,  and  finally  for 
an  understanding  of  the  romanticists,  must  understand  almost 
the  whole  of  modern  philosophy,  but  especially  the  fundamental 
principles  of  Spinoza,  Baumgarten  (the  author  of  modern  aes- 
thetics), Kant,  Fichte,  Schelling,  Hegel,  and  Schleiermacher. 
And  even  the  instructor  in  natural  science  cannot  have  full  suc- 
cess without  an  acquaintance  with  the  influence  of  the  discover- 
ies and  investigations  of  Copernicus,  Galileo,  Kepler  and  New^- 
ton  on  the  world-view  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies. 

There  remain  a  large  number  of  special  cases  in  which  a 
knowledge  of  the  history  of  philosophy  is  necessary  for  the 
teacher,  or  at  least  very  useful.  I  think  therefore  that  it  is 
very  desirable  that  more  direct  reference  should  be  made  in 
the  regulations  governing  the  certification  of  teachers.  In 
Prussia  everj-  candidate  for  the  office  of  teacher  must  pass  an 
examination  in  philosophy,  which  generally  also  includes  an 
essay.     Vaihinger  has  made  valuable  suggestions  on  the  selec- 


98  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

tion  of  themes  for  these  philosophical  essays  in  his  very  readable 
article  on  Philosophy  in  the  State  Exatninatiojis.  He  advo- 
cates the  same  principles  which  I  have  just  set  forth,  namely, 
that  the  examination  in  philosophy  should  be  made  from  the 
viewpoint  of  the  candidate's  special  branch  of  study.  In  the 
oral  examination  he  would  also  require  the  history  of  philoso- 
phy. Here  in  Austria  we  do  not  require  quite  as  much  as  this. 
The  regulations  simply  require  that  the  candidate  attend  a 
course  of  lectures  in  philosophy  for  a  semester  and  that  he 
give  evidence  of  his  work  by  conducting  a  conference  on  some 
philosophical  topic.  It  has  been  my  privilege  to  conduct  more 
than  three  thousand  such  conferences  during  the  past  ten  years. 
The  experiences  which  have  thus  come  to  me  seem  in  a  general 
way  to  confirm  the  wisdom  of  this  rule.  But  I  should  like  to 
see  several  modifications. 

First  of  all  psychology  should  be  separated  from  philosophy 
and  each  candidate  should  be  required  to  present  a  Colloquium 
in  psychology,  or,  what  might  perhaps  be  better  still,  to  ex- 
amine directly  in  psychology  at  the  teacher's  final  examination. 
It  would  then  be  necessary  to  require  each  student  to  conduct  a 
Colloquium  on  two  philosophical  lectures.  And  it  should  be 
added,  that  Introduction  to  Philosophy  and  History  of  Philos- 
ophy are  best  adapted  to  this  purpose.  The  educational  ad- 
ministrators would  then  have  to  make  provision  for  such  courses 
at  regular  intervals.  It  would  also  be  very  desirable  if  the 
history  of  philosophy  were  not  only  given  in  exhaustive  courses 
extending  through  several  semesters,  but  also  that  a  compre- 
hensive outline  be  given  in  a  single  semester.  The  history  of 
philosophy  is  a  pretty  difficult  subject,  and  the  living  voice,  the 
stimulus  of  oral  exposition  here  contributes  greatly  to  the  study 
of  the  dead  letter. 

We  might  therefore  say  that  thorough  philosophical  training 
is  indeed  desirable  for  every  teacher,  but  it  should  nevertheless 
not  be  made  an  absolute  requirement.  On  the  other  hand  we 
should  regard  the  acquaintance  with  the  problems  of  philosophy 
and  their  historical  development  as  the  common  scientific  prob- 
lem of  all  teachers,  and  see  to  it  that  the  necessary  means  are 
discovered  to  accomplish  the  solution  of  this  problem. 

Prussia  still  requires  an  examination  in  religion  of  all^  its 
candidates  for  the  teaching  office.     This  has  not  been  required 


The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary   Teacher      99 

here  in  Austria  since  the  reorganization  of  the  Gymnasium  in 
1849.  My  experiences  convince  me  that  a  famiharity  with  the 
Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  is  a  real 
necessity  in  a  large  number  of  subjects  of  instruction  and  very 
valuable  in  most  all  of  them.  It  has,  e.g.,  always  made  a  pro- 
found impression  on  the  class  when,  in  the  study  of  the  familiar 
chorus  of  Antigone,  "  Much  that  is  mighty  lives,"  I  read  the 
eighth  Psalm,  where  the  power  of  man  over  nature  is  likewise 
set  forth.  But  the  knowledge  of  the  Bible  is  even  of  far 
greater  importance  to  the  Germanist  and  the  historian  than  to 
the  classical  philologist.  But  alas,  this  knowledge  seems  to 
have  greatly  decreased  during  recent  decades.  I  have  made 
a  variety  of  interesting  observations  on  this  point,  both  with 
teachers  and  pupils.  I  was  once  sitting  in  a  hotel  with  some 
twenty  colleagues  after  a  meeting  of  our  secondary  teachers' 
union.  It  happened,  I  know  not  how,  that  our  conversation 
drifted  to  the  familiar  phrase,  "  Now  we  know  in  part."  I  was 
curious  to  know  whether  my  colleagues  knew  the  origin  of  the 
phrase,  so  I  inquired  whence  this  expression  was  derived. 
One  thought  Lessing  w^as  the  author,  another  Goethe  but  the 
majority  admitted  that  they  did  not  know.  In  the  circle, 
consisting  largely  of  Catholics,  there  was  also  a  Protestant 
teacher.  The  latter  remarked  that  the  passage  seemed  to  him 
to  come  from  the  Bible  somewhere.  And  they  were  all  greatly 
surprised  to  find  the  passage  in  the  same  thirteenth  chapter  of 
first  Corinthians  which  begins  with  the  familiar  words :  "  And 
though  I  speak  with  the  tongue  of  men  and  angels,  5:c."  I 
have  also  found  that  among  my  pupils  the  Protestants,  who  are 
scarce  among  us,  are  as  a  rule  better  acquainted  wnth  the  Bible. 
But  notwithstanding  this  I  could  not  agree  to  make  it  a  re- 
quired subject  in  the  state  examination.  As  a  matter  of  fact 
both  the  political  and  inter-confessional  character  of  our  schools 
presents  no  obstacles  to  such  provision,  but  the  candidates  would 
find  it  an  added  burden  which  would  seem  to  have  but  little 
practical  value,  since  religious  instruction  at  the  higher  schools 
is  scarcely  ever  in  the  hands  of  the  secular  teachers  in  this 
predominantly  Roman  Catholic  state.  On  the  other  hand  I 
should  regard  it  ven'  desirable  that  the  students  be  given  an 
opportunity  to  attend  lectures  on  comparative  religion  and  on 
the  general  philosophy  of  religion.     The  scientific  world  of  to- 


lOO  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

day  takes  an  essentially  different  attitude  to  the  significance 
of  religion  as  a  factor  in  civilization  from  that  of  the  enlighten- 
ment of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  profound  awakening  and 
sharpening  of  the  historical  sense  brought  about  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  is  producing  results.  The  science  of  anthro- 
pology has  established  the  fact  that  religious  ideas  belong  to 
the  primarj'  thought  of  the  human  race.  We  are  in  position  to 
show  the  social  origin  and  the  individual  construction  of  human 
knowledge  in  the  evolution  of  religions  in  a  manner  scarcely 
equalled  in  any  other  subject.  This  evolutionary  process  more- 
over reveals,  to  all  who  have  learned  to  interpret  them  intelli- 
gently, how  the  religious  concepts,  originally  coarsely  anthro- 
pomorphic are  gradually  purified  and  refined  by  being  vitally 
related  with  ethical  requirements.  The  classical  philologist 
who  is  acquainted  with  these  facts  can  show  this  to  the  pupils 
right  in  the  process  of  the  change  undergone  in  the  idea  of  the 
gods,  especially  that  of  Zeus,  during  the  period  from  Homer  to 
Sophocles.  The  historian  will  have  a  better  understanding  of 
the  religious  movements  of  the  various  epochs  and  the  Germanist 
will  more  correctly  evaluate  the  religious  element  in  the  crea- 
tions of  Shakespeare,  Goethe  and  the  Romanticists.  Even  the 
physicist  and  naturalist  will  learn  much  from  such  study  on  the 
relation  of  religion  and  science  which  will  be  valuable  in  his  own 
department. 

An  acquaintance  with  the  nature  of  religion  and  a  knowledge 
of  the  doctrines  and  practices  of  the  confession  to  which  the 
teacher  belongs  as  well  as  that  to  which  the  majority  of  the 
pupils  belong,  forms  a  part  of  our  general  scientific  problem, 
no  matter  whether  it  is  included  in  the  examination  regulations 
or  not. 

The  examination  regulations,  both  in  Germany  and  here  in 
Austria,  require  the  correct  use  of  the  language  of  instruction 
and  an  acquaintance  with  the  masterpieces  of  its  literature. 
This  requirement  is  so  patent  as  to  need  no  further  comment. 
I  might  simply  add  that  this  minimum  requirement  for  certifi- 
cation is  not  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  instruction.  If  Nägels- 
bach could  say,  the  Gymnasial  teacher  must  be  a  learned  man, 
we  must  now  say,  the  secondary  teacher  must  be  a  cultured  man. 
But  this  does  not  mean  the  mere  ability  to  speak  German  and 
some  knowledge  of  Goethe  and  Schiller.     We  must  acquaint 


The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary   Teacher       lOi 

ourselves  as  thoroughly  as  possible  with  the  literarj^  political, 
economic,  social  and  the  general  cultural  movements  of  our 
age.  We  must  understand  our  age  so  as  to  be  the  better  en- 
abled to  guard  our  pupils  against  the  errors  of  the  age.  The 
profound  complexity  of  modern  life,  which  particularly  in  our 
great  cities  pours  down  upon  the  pupils  of  the  advanced  classes, 
frequently  gives  rise  to  ideas,  feelings  and  desires  from  which 
we  ordinarily  shrink.  We  cannot,  as  a  matter  of  course,  by 
any  means  paralyse  all  the  influences  or  direct  them  into  the 
proper  channels.  But  if  we  are  to  be  in  a  position  to  be  helpful 
in  any  real  sense  to  the  youth  who  are  entrusted  to  our  care, 
we  are  obliged  to  understand  as  thoroughly  as  possible  the 
temptations  to  which  they  are  exposed.  We  shall  have  occa- 
sion to  refer  to  this  phase  of  our  work  again  when  we  come 
to  the  discussion  of  our  social  duties. 

Finally  therefore  I  might  summarize  our  general  professional 
duties  as  follows :  The  thorough  mastery  of  pedagogy  and 
psychology  is  the  irremissible  duty  of  every  teacher.  General 
philosophical  training,  and  particularly  an  acquaintance  with  the 
historical  development  of  philosophical  problems  is  very  desir- 
able. An  intelligent  grasp  of  the  nature  of  religion  and  an 
acquaintance  with  the  sources  and  practices  of  his  own  con- 
fession will  greatly  increase  the  teacher's  efficiency  in  his  work. 
And  every  teacher  must  not  only  be  able  to  use  his  mother 
tongue  correctly  and  with  facility ;  he  must  also  be  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  masterpieces  of  its  literature  and  be  in  touch 
with  the  thought-currents  of  his  people  and  his  age. 

2.     The  Special  Groups 

I  wish  to  add  to  the  above  considerations,  of  our  general 
duties,  a  few  remarks  on  the  preparation  of  the  teacher  in  the 
various  departments. 

A.     Philology 

I.  The  ancient  languages.  The  teacher  of  classical  philology 
at  present  encounters  a  situation  which  is  highly  complicated 
and  difficult.  First  of  all  the  storm  of  protest  against  the 
Gymnasial  monopoly  has  had  the  objective  result  of  admitting 


I02  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

to  university  privileges  the  pupils  from  the  schools  where 
neither  of  the  ancient  classics  are  taught.  But  of  far  more 
serious  consequence  for  classical  training  is  the  subjective  ef- 
fect which  the  protest  against  the  ancient  languages,  especially 
against  Greek,  is  beginning  to  produce.  We  find  unfortunately, 
even  in  the  camp  of  the  philologists  themselves,  clear  evidences  of 
discouragement.  P'aith  in  the  disciplinary  value  of  the  ancient 
languages  is  declining  and  without  this  faith  it  is  impossible 
to  inspire  the  subjective  spirit  necessary  to  the  proper  appre- 
ciation of  the  treasures  stored  up  in  the  ancient  languages  and 
their  utilization  for  the  development  of  youth.  And  this  un- 
fortunately undeniable  lethargy  even  comes  at  a  time  when 
the  science  of  philology  is  not  only  in  the  full  bloom  of  its 
usefulness,  but  in  fact  just  in  position  to  gather  the  harvest 
provided  by  millenniums  of  preliminary  toil.  The  monuments 
of  antiquity,  enhanced  by  many  precious  discoveries,  are  now 
within  the  reach  of  scientific  investigation.  The  papyrus-rec- 
ords and  the  inscriptions  have  been  added  to  the  texts  of  the 
ancient  authors,  with  the  result  that  our  knowledge  of  the 
history  of  the  social  and  private  life  of  the  peoples  of  antiquity 
has  been  wonderfully  deepened.  Philology  has  drawn  the  early 
Christian  and  Byzantine  literature  into  the  sphere  of  its  in- 
vestigation and  by  an  intensive  study  has  discovered  new  points 
of  contact  with  Hellenism.  Psychology'  and  anthropology  per- 
meate and  vitalize  the  whole  field.  The  detailed  work  of 
analysis,  hitherto  the  chief  business  of  the  philologist,  will  still 
find  much  material  and  many  problems  for  a  long  time  to  come. 
But  we  may  nevertheless  undertake  to  move  forward  to  more 
comprehensive  syntheses,  many  have  in  fact  already  done  so. 
We  approach  the  problem  of  writing  the  history  of  the  science, 
the  religion,  the  ethics  and  the  aesthetics  and  interpreting  the 
evolution  of  political  and  social  ideas  as  well  as  the  economic 
life  of  antiquity  with  definite  principles.  Anyone  who  now 
devotes  himself  to  the  study  of  classical  philology  discovers 
great  and  inspiring  problems,  which  are  well  adapted  to  enrich 
and  strengthen  the  mind  and  soul.  If  it  should  actually  be 
the  sad  lot  of  classical  philology,  that  now,  just  as  she  is  re- 
alizing the  climax  of  her  scientific  endeavor,  she  must  be 
robbed  of  her  fostering  soil,  the  school,  the  situation  is  still  not 
so  deplorable.     The  classical  studies  still  have  abundant  friends 


The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary   Teacher       103 

and  the  existing  regulations  still  leave  abundant  room  to  give 
proof  of  the  inexhaustible  cultural  value  of  antiquity.  It 
therefore  becomes  a  matter  of  honor  to  every  teacher  of  the 
ancient  languages  so  to  inspire  and  interest  their  pupils  that 
they  will  in  time  insist  on  the  preservation  of  this  department 
of  education.  Many  have  sinned  in  this  respect.  The  over- 
emphasis of  the  grammatical  phase  of  the  instruction  in  the 
ancient  languages  has  diverted  the  attention  from  the  thought 
of  the  authors  to  the  linguistic  form.  On  the  other  hand  the 
attempt  to  introduce  a  large  amount  of  sense-perception, 
archaeolog}'^  and  objective  facts  into  philological  instruction  has 
frequently  been  detrimental  to  thoroughness.  It  is  necessary 
therefore  to  introduce  new  energy  at  this  point  and  the  primary 
condition  is  that  the  prospective  teachers  get  a  correct  concep- 
tion of  their  educational  problem  and  apply  them.selves  unre- 
mittingly to  their  philological  education. 

The  primary  duty  of  the  philologist  is  to  read  widely  and 
thoroughly  of  the  ancient  authors.  These  readings  must  form 
the  foundation  upon  which  the  knowledge  of  classical  antiquity 
as  a  unique  phenomenon  of  civilization  is  gradually  builded. 
The  professional  pursuit  of  philology  is  not  always  favorable  to 
such  reading.  The  necessary  specialization  imposed  by  the 
progress  of  investigation  has  the  effect  of  leading  the  amateur 
philologist  to  a  one-sided  detailed  study  of  a  single  author  or 
to  investigations  requiring  a  perusal  of  various  authors  with 
reference  to  some  specific  linguistic  or  factual  phenomenon. 
Anyone  reading  Caesar,  e.g.,  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the 
consecutive  temporum  in  the  historical  present  tense,  or  works 
through  Plato  with  a  view  to  investigations  of  terminology,  or 
undertakes  to  find  out  the  frequency  and  position  of  dactyls 
in  trimeter  in  the  Tragedies  of  Sophocles,  will  assimilate  but 
little  of  the  content  of  what  he  has  read  and  will  retain  still 
less.  We  teachers  require  a  different  kind  of  reading  and 
especially  with  a  different  end  in  view.  We  must  acquire  a 
stock  of  the  aesthetically  and  historically  important  masterpieces 
of  ancient  literature  by  our  own  effort  which  will  always  be 
at  our  command.  But  we  must  read  these  works  for  their  own 
sake.  We  must  retain  their  content,  structure  and  as  many 
details  as  possible,  and  if  possible  the  language.  And  at  the 
same  time  we  must  attempt  to  conceive  these  works  in  their 


104  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

relation  to  the  whole  of  antiquity  and  hence  in  their  historical 
significance.  We  are  quite  as  well  aware  as  the  research  philolo- 
gists that  antiquity,  to  quote  the  famous  phrase  of  Wilamowitz, 
as  an  ideal  and  unity  is  past.  We  know  that  the  fifteen  cen- 
turies between  Homer  and  Justinian  have  produced  profound 
changes  in  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  his  people,  to  morals, 
and  to  religion  and  that  the  intellectual  horizon  of  man  has 
been  greatly  enlarged.  But,  if  I  am  permitted  the  expression, 
there  are  permanent  levels  in  this  process  of  evolution.  In  this 
rise  and  fall  of  history  there  are  several  pinnacles  which  re- 
main forever  visible  from  every  side.  And  we  can  say  very 
literally  that  there  are  products  in  the  history  and  civilization 
of  antiquity  whose  beneficent  influence  is  by  no  means  spent 
and  is  not  likely  to  be  spent  within  any  conceivable  period  of 
time.  The  acquisition  of  these  vital  elements  of  antiquity 
and  their  application  to  the  problems  of  modern  life  is  the  goal 
which  every  teacher  of  ancient  languages  should  set  up  for 
himself. 

The  certificate  regulations  in  the  majority  of  the  German 
states  and  likewise  in  Austria  confine  the  requirements  to  the 
authors  read  in  the  schools.  But  teachers  cannot  be  satisfied 
with  this.  No  one  can  understand  Sophocles  without  some  ac- 
quaintance with  Aeschylus  and  Euripides,  and  the  intellectual 
life  of  Athens  in  the  fifth  century  b.  c.  can  never  be  appre- 
ciated in  all  its  vital  splendor  without  having  read  Aristophanes 
and  Thucydides.  On  the  other  hand  I  should  gladly  waive 
Lysias  aside,  and  induce  the  candidates  to  devote  some  attention 
to  Aristotle  and  read  the  Poetics,  the  Nichomachean  Ethics  and 
especially  the  Politics. 

In  the  essay  cited  above,  Arnim  very  correctly  indicated  that 
every  philologist  should  likewise  practice  translating.  On  this 
point  I  beg  to  offer  a  suggestion  to  everyone  wishing  to  pre- 
pare for  teaching  the  ancient  languages.  Let  him  provide  him- 
self at  the  very  beginning  of  his  university  studies  with  a  note- 
book for  classic  gems.  Then  whenever  in  his  reading  he  comes 
upon  a  passage  which  impresses  him  as  important  and  inter- 
esting for  any  reason  whatsoever,  let  him  transcribe  it  in  the 
original  in  his  notebook  and  underneath  a  translation  made  as 
exact  and  careful  as  possible  with  special  reference  to  content 
and  form.     He  will  thus  gradually  acquire  a  splendid  collec- 


The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary  Teacher       105 

tion  of  gems  of  antiquity,  a  collection  made  by  personal  choice 
and  indivi'dual  effort,  which  corresponds  to  the  individuality 
of  the  teacher  and  is  therefore  readily  fixed  in  memory.  He 
at  the  same  time  practices  translation  and  acquires  invaluable 
materials  for  vitalizing  his  instruction. 

Reading  must  likewise  furnish  the  basis  for  the  constant  in- 
crease and  enrichment  of  linguistic  ability.  Arnim  correctly 
observes,  that  the  philologist  should  study  the  theory  of  phonetics 
and  verbal  structure  under  the  linguist,  and  syntax  under  the 
philologist.  A  familiarity  with  the  elements  of  comparative 
philology  is  indispensable  in  elementary  instruction  in  Greek 
as  also  in  the  interpretation  of  Homer.  And  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  sentence  structure  of  the  ancient  languages  can 
only  be  acquired  by  absorption  in  these  languages  themselves 
through  intensive  interpretation,  through  thorough  analysis. 
But  this  presupposes  —  and  here  I  repeat  one  of  my  oft  ex- 
pressed pet  phrases  —  above  ever>^thing  else  psychological  train- 
ing. The  peculiar  flexibility  of  the  Greek  language  which 
makes  it  possible  to  express  the  most  delicate  nuances  of 
thought  appropriately,  which  frequently  in  the  midst  of  an 
address  as  if  by  the  slight  pressure  of  a  secret  button  yields 
a  new  coloring,  can  only  be  appreciated  by  one  whose  mind 
has  become  pliable  by  practice  in  analyzing  psychical  pro- 
cesses. I  have  illustrated  this  with  examples  in  my  essays  on 
Psychology  in  the  Service  of  Grammar  and  Interpretation  and 
The  Disciplinary  Value  of  Instruction  in  the  Ancient  Lan- 
guages. Both  for  the  thorough  understanding  of  grammatical 
structure  as  well  as  for  the  interpretation  of  an  author  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  transport  oneself  into  the  soul  of  the 
speaker  and  subjectively  reexperience  what  is  said  and  written. 
It  then  becomes  an  easy  matter  both  in  grammar  and  in  reading 
to  suffuse  the  subject  with  life  and  arouse  interest  in  it.  And 
the  psychological  interpretation  of  language  likewise  confirms 
the  view  that  verbal  and  real  understanding  always  proceed  to- 
gether and  mutually  interpenetrate  and  support  each  other. 
In  my  opinion  therefore  it  is  the  duty  of  every  philologist  not 
only  to  study  psychology  to  the  extent  required  of  all  teach- 
ers; in  addition  to  this  he  must  even  make  language  itself  and 
the  products  of  language  the  subject  of  a  penetrating  psycho- 
logical analysis. 


io6  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

We  remarked  above  that  reading  forms  the  most  important 
basis  for  the  professional  training  of  the  philologist.  This 
cannot  be  over-emphasized,  but  we  must  always  add  that  read- 
ing alone  is  not  wholly  sufficient.  We  also  need  summarized 
statements  of  ancient  history,  of  the  literary  development  as 
well  as  of  the  public  and  private  life  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Scientific  research,  by  appropriating  the  inscriptions,  the  papyri 
and  the  remaining  relics  of  antiquity  which  the  spade  has  brought 
to  light,  has  in  a  very  wide  sense  enriched  and  corrected  our 
idea  of  the  ancients.  A  recognition  of  the  results  of  this  re- 
search is  likewise  an  indispensable  requirement  for  the  under- 
standing of  the  authors.  But  this  recognition  is  required  in  the 
rules  governing  certification  and  the  university  instruction  makes 
ample  provision  for  it,  so  that  I  can  pass  it  by  without  any 
further  elaboration.  Touching  the  matter  of  philosophy  I 
would  simply  refer  to  what  has  been  said  above  and  only  ob- 
serve in  conclusion  that  the  teacher  of  philology  needs  both 
classical  and  modern  training.  The  value  of  the  ancients  is 
greatly  enhanced  when  viewed  in  the  light  of  the  modern  man. 

2.  Modern  Languages.  {French  and  English.) — The 
duties  of  the  modern  philologist  are  essentially  different 
from  those  of  the  teacher  of  ancient  languages.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  course  the  instruction  in  modern  languages  is  likewise 
supposed  to  contribute  to  a  deeper  understanding  of  language 
in  general,  but  the  most  important  aim  still  remains  the  prac- 
tical command  of  the  language  of  a  modern  people  and  to  enable 
the  pupils  to  understand  the  language  quickly  and  correctly 
and  to  speak  and  write  it  with  facility.  It  is  therefore  the 
first  and  most  important  duty  of  the  teacher  to  acquire  this 
knowledge  himself.  To  this  end,  after  preliminary  intensive 
theoretical  study  at  home  —  but  not  without  this  foundation 
—  a  prolonged  stay  among  the  people  whose  native  language  it 
is  is  the  best  method.  It  is  far  less  important  that  the  student 
should  complete  a  course  of  study  or  research  in  Paris  or  Lon- 
don and  to  this  end  spend  days  in  the  libraries.  He  will  ac- 
complish his  purpose  far  better  by  hearing  lectures  on  language 
and  literature,  visiting  parliament  and  courts  of  law  and  seek 
every  opportunity  to  practice  the  living  use  of  the  language 
himself.  If  he  has  acquired  a  correct  expression  —  if  possible 
with  phonetic  appreciation  —  as  well  as  facility  in  speech  and  a 


The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary   Teacher       107 

rich  vocabulary,  especially  in  reference  to  the  common  things 
of  life,  he  has  accomplished  a  great,  perhaps  the  greatest  part 
of  his  educational  duty.  As  matters  stand  at  present  the  chief 
concern  of  the  teacher  of  modern  languages  is  the  ability  to 
use  the  language. 

Historical  grammar  and  the  literature  of  the  language  under 
consideration  occupies  so  large  a  place  in  the  conduct  of  the 
university  and  in  the  certificate  requirements,  that  students 
are  not  greatly  tempted  to  neglect  these  things.  That  the 
teacher  must  have  a  general  knowledge  of  the  literature  is  self- 
evident.  And  it  is  quite  as  evident  that  he  would  carefully 
study  the  suggestive  relations  of  foreign  literatures  to  the 
German.  And  the  modern  philologist  should  be  acquainted 
with  ancient  literature  and  mythology. 

Psychological  training  is  quite  as  important  in  instruction  in 
modern  linguistics  as  in  ancient.  French  offers  exceptionally 
rich  material  in  the  matter  of  the  position  of  the  words  and 
variation  of  meaning.  It  is  of  course  not  always  easy  in  the 
highly  developed  and  consequent  highly  complicated  nature  of 
modern  language,  to  discover  the  psychological  thread,  but 
the  search  for  it  is  even  more  interesting  for  this  very  reason. 
At  any  rate  French  teachers  should  never  forget,  that  it  was 
the  masters  of  romance  philology  preeminently  who  insisted  on, 
practiced  and  cultivated  the  psychological  method  of  language 
interpretation. 

3.  German  (as  subject  of  instruction).  The  teacher  of 
German  requires  philosophical  training  and  an  acquaintance 
with  general  literature.  He  should  have  a  complete  command 
of  the  language,  facility  in  speech  and  a  taste  for  poetry. 
Many  teachers  of  German  are  not  sufficiently  familiar  with 
their  own  literature,  which  must  be  regarded  the  very  first 
and  most  important  duty  of  the  Germanist.  The  masterpieces 
of  Lessing,  Schiller,  Goethe,  Grillparzer,  Kleist  and  even  Heb- 
bel and  Otto  Ludwig  should  be  so  thoroughly  familiar  in  all 
their  details  to  the  teacher  of  German  that  everything  they  con- 
tain should  be  at  his  command  at  any  moment.  And  he  should 
also  have  a  first  hand  knowledge  of  the  works  of  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries. 

The  study  of  the  old  German  language  and  literature  is  like- 
wise necessary.     Anyone  wishing  to  fully  assimilate  the  German 


io8  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

nature  and  the  German  spirit  must  be  thoroughly  familiar  with 
the  development  of  the  German  language,  with  its  legendary 
poetry,  with  chivalry  and  the  Minnesingers.  But  here  there 
may  be  too  much  of  the  good  thing.  The  study  of  the  Gothic 
and  other  old  germanic  languages  requires  much  time  and 
energy,  and  the  student  who  applies  himself  diligently  may  read- 
ily find  that  he  has  but  little  time  left  for  modern  literature. 
But  the  latter  is  undoubtedly  of  far  greater  value.  In  actual 
practice  he  will  never  have  occasion  to  read  the  Nibelungenlied 
and  Walther  with  his  pupils  for  more  than  a  semester,  whilst  he 
will  constantly  use  accurate  knowledge  of  modern  literature 
in  both  the  higher  and  lower  classes  and  can  never  know  enough 
of  it.  And  there  is  still  another  fact  requiring  mention.  Mod- 
ern literary  science  has  developed  a  method  of  its  own  during 
the  last  decades  which  is  essentially  different  from  that  of  the 
old  philology. 

If  the  Germanist  is  to  be  a  modern  man  —  and  the  teacher 
of  German  must  be,  even  more  so  than  the  other  secondary 
teachers  —  it  is  a  matter  of  first  importance  that  he  devote  his 
undivided  effort  to  penetrating  as  deeply  as  possible  into  the 
matter  and  spirit  of  German  literature  from  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury onward.  No  one  can  ever  fully  appreciate  the  literature  of 
a  people  without  considering  it  in  connection  with  their  re- 
ligious, political,  social,  technical,  scientific  and  economic  de- 
velopment. The  Germanist  therefore  needs  a  vast  amount 
of  knowledge  of  the  history  of  civilization.  The  frequent 
combination  of  German  and  history  among  secondary  teachers 
is  consequently  quite  fortunate,  and  its  still  greater  frequency 
ihighly  desirable.  Thus,  e.g.,  the  historically  trained  Germanist 
perceives  at  once  that  the  rise  of  the  political  drama  in  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  ( The  London  Merchant  and 
Miss  Sara  Sampson)  finds  its  real  explanation  in  the  social  and 
economic  advance  of  the  citizen  class.  The  closing  lines  of 
Chamisso's  poem  "  Die  Weiber  von  Weinsberg": 

"  Im  Jahr  1140,  wo  ich's  verzeichnet  fand, 
Galt   Königswort   noch   heilig   im   deutchen    Vaterland." 

are  incomprehensible  without  the  historical  knowledge  that  at 
the  time  when  Chamisso  wrote  the  poem  several  German  princes 


1 


The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary   Teacher       109 

had  promised  their  people  constitutions,  but  failed  to  fulfill  the 
promises. 

The  Germanist  will  also  find  a  knowledge  of  general  litera- 
ture indispensable.  Lessing,  Schiller,  Goethe  and  Grillparzer 
contain  linguistic  and  factual  reminiscences  of  Ovid,  Vergil  and 
Horace  in  no  inconsiderable  number  and  lack  of  familiarity 
with  these  poets  has  even  resulted  in  erroneous  conceptions 
among  learned  investigators  of  our  own  age. 

The  value  of  philosophical  training  for  the  teacher  of  Ger- 
man likewise  requires  emphasis.  In  order  to  appreciate  Schil- 
ler's philosophical  Lyrics  an  acquaintance  with  Kant's  aesthetics 
and  ethics  is  of  special  importance.  Any  one,  e.g.,  who  wishes 
to  understand  and  interpret  the  pearl  of  Schiller's  Thought- 
poems,  "  The  Ideal  and  the  Life,"  must  know  Kant's  "  Funda- 
mental Principles  of  the  Metaphysics  of  Ethics  "  and  "  The 
Critique  of  Practical  Reason."  Thus  the  two  lines  of  the 
first  strophe: 

"  Zwischen  Sinnenglück  und  Seelenfrieden  bleibt  dem  Men- 
schen nur  die  bange  Wahl,"  are  incomprehensible  except  from 
the  viewpoint  of  Kant's  rigoristic  theory  of  morality.  So  like- 
wise the  line:  "Kein  Erschaffner  hat  das  Ziel  erflogen." 
Lessing's  "  Laokoon  "  contains  passages  whose  sense  can  only 
be  appreciated  by  those  who  are  acquainted  with  Baumgarten's 
theory  of  the  beautiful.  But  whilst  the  knowledge  of  certain 
philosophical  systems  contributes  chiefly  to  the  better  under- 
standing of  certain  poems  and  particular  passages,  psychological 
training  is  indispensable  for  the  whole  treatment  of  grammar 
and  interpretation  and  we  accordingly  emphasize  once  more  the 
fact  that  ever}^  Germanist  even  as  every  other  philologist  must 
be  a  trained  psychologist. 

We  might  summarize  these  requirements  as  follows:  The 
teacher  of  German  above  all  else  needs  a  comprehensive  his- 
torico-philosophic  and  a  literary-aesthetic  training.  He  must 
have  a  complete  mastery  of  the  language,  culture  and  literature 
of  the  German  people  both  in  its  progressive  development  and 
in  the  climax  of  its  achievement.  And  further  he  must  have 
an  acquaintance  with  general  literature  and  acquired  the  ability 
to  penetrate  his  subject  both  ps_vchologically  and  philosophically. 

4.  History.  The  secondary  teacher  of  history  needs  two 
things  in  particular.     He  must  seek  to  attain  a  general  con- 


no  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

spectus  of  general  historical  evolution  of  the  human  race  from 
pre-historic  times  to  the  present.  In  order  to  accomplish  the 
real  object  of  historical  instruction,  the  development  of  the 
historic  sense,  the  teacher  must  have  the  whole  course  of  de- 
velopment in  mind  at  every  class  period,  so  as  to  be  able  to 
direct  attention  to  the  relation  of  events  and  the  various  paral- 
lels in  historical  phenomena.  In  addition  to  this  he  must  have 
at  his  command  a  wealth  of  information  on  the  epochal  periods 
of  history  so  as  to  be  able  to  describe  them  vividly  and  im- 
pressively. It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  meet  both  these  require- 
ments but  they  are  both  indispensable  to  the  successful  imparta- 
tion  of  historical  instruction.  A  more  intimate  coordination 
of  philology  and  history  would  materially  reduce  the  difficulties 
of  prospective  teachers.  The  classical  philologist  must  at  the 
same  time  master  Greek  and  Roman  history  and  he  would  not 
find  any  great  difficulty  in  familiarizing  himself  with  the  other 
periods  in  addition.  The  same  principle  applies  to  the  teacher 
of  modern  languages  and  especially  so  to  the  teacher  of  German. 
Such  a  coordination  with  philology  together  with  a  correspond- 
ing separation  from  Geography,  which  always  tends  to  develop 
in  the  direction  of  the  natural  sciences,  would  bring  great  gain 
to  instruction  in  both  philologj'^  and  history. 

The  student  can  most  readily  acquire  a  survey  of  the  evolu- 
tion of  civilization  by  taking  a  course  of  lectures  on  the  subject 
under  a  spirited  lecturer  on  universal  history.  But  under 
present  conditions  the  universal  historians  are  constantly  be- 
coming more  rare.  Karl  Lamprecht  has  announced  his  purpose 
upon  the  completion  of  his  history  of  the  Germans  to  devote 
himself  to  general  history,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  his  famous 
institute  in  Leipzig  may  soon  produce  men  with  broad  outlook 
and  an  appreciation  of  the  universal  who  will  greatly  reduce  the 
difficulties  of  future  generations  of  teachers  of  history  in  the 
matter  of  the  correlation  of  events.  But  even  if  the  university 
makes  no  provision,  the  future  teacher  of  history  cannot  repudi- 
ate this  exceedingly  important  professional  duty.  He  must 
acquire  a  general  conspectus  of  the  evolution  of  human  culture 
by  his  own  individual  study.  Working  through  a  History 
of  the  World  extending  through  many  volumes  is  ill  adapted 
to  this  purpose.  In  the  first  place  this  would  require  a  number 
of  years  and   then  the  wealth  of   details  would  increase  the 


The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary   Teacher       1 1 1 

difficulty  of  grasping  it  as  a  unitary  whole.  Permit  me  to 
suggest  to  the  young  historian  what  may  perhaps  sound  some- 
what like  fatherly  advice.  Read  Schiller's  inaugural  address 
at  frequent  intervals,  master  it  thoroughly  and  illustrate  its 
principles  by  examples  of  your  own.  It  seems  to  me  this  ad- 
dress is  nothing  short  of  wonderful  in  the  abundance  of  sug- 
gestions and  ideas  it  contains  which  can  only  now  be  correctly 
and  fully  utilized.  Thus,  e.g.,  Schiller's  suggestion  concerning 
the  use  to  be  made  of  the  reports  of  the  wanderings  of  primi- 
tive tribes  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  history  of  primitive  man 
can  only  be  fully  appreciated  in  our  own  age  on  account  of  the 
extraordinary  increase  in  the  amount  of  material  at  our  com- 
mand and  its  elaboration  by  modern  anthropolog>\  The  ob- 
servation illustrated  by  an  example,  that  the  explanation  of 
every  particular  fact  of  the  present  time  involves  the  whole 
histon'  of  the  world  is  likely  to  inspire  the  historic  sense  more 
powerfully  and  instructively  than  an  extended  dissertation. 
If  the  prospective  historian  takes  the  trouble  to  illustrate  these 
principles  with  new  examples  of  his  own  and  to  get  a  clear 
grasp  of  them  he  will  find  that  he  is  making  substantial  progress. 

The  old  question  whether  history  reveals  any  laws  has  re- 
cently been  very  widely  and  thoroughly  discussed.  Windel- 
band and  Rickert  have  taken  a  decidedly  negative  attitude  and 
maintain  that  history  in  its  very  nature  differs  from  natural 
science  by  the  very  fact  that  history  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  investigation  of  general  laws,  but  confines  itself  to  separate 
facts.  It  is  the  business  of  the  science  of  history  —  according 
to  Rickert  —  to  select  from  among  these  facts  such  as  have 
cultural  value.  That  is  to  say,  Rickert  conceives  history  as  a 
science  of  facts  on  the  one  hand  and  of  culture  on  the  other 
and  as  distinguished  from  natural  science  by  these  two  charac- 
teristics. History  specialists  will  in  a  general  way  readily 
adopt  this  conception.  They  no  longer  regard  it  their  business 
to  search  for  the  principles  of  historical  development;  they  can 
become  wholly  absorbed  in  their  particular  problem  without 
being  annoyed  by  any  philosophical  scruples. 

This  conception  would  also  be  very  acceptable  to  the  history 
teacher,  if  Rickert  had  not  materially  reduced  its  value  by  his 
attitude  toward  scientific  psycholog^^  Rickert  does  not  wish  to 
deny  the  possibility  of  "  the  historian  being  able  to  learn  some- 


112  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

thing  from  scientific  psychology."  He  is  of  the  opinion  how- 
ever that  in  the  majority  of  cases  "  the  general  conceptual 
knowledge  which  he  has  already  acquired  in  the  pre-scientific 
stage  is  sufficient  for  his  purposes."  And  he  adds,  "  In  fact  he 
may  perhaps  find  that  his  prescientific  general  knowledge  will  be 
a  safer  guide  than  any  psychological  theories,  because  his  de- 
scriptions will  thus  be  more  readily  understood  by  all  who  share 
these  ideas  with  him  than  would  be  possible  with  the  use  of 
technical  terms." 

This  will  not  inspire  the  historian  who  reads  it  to  give  much 
attention  to  the  study  of  psychology.  He  will  rather  feel  that 
he  is  superior  to  it.  From  my  point  of  view  therefore  I  must 
protest  against  it  most  vigorously.  I  am  thoroughly  of  the 
opinion  that  an  intensive  study  of  the  human  soul  is  the  only 
way  for  the  historian  to  acquire  an  insight  into  the  nature  of 
history  and  a  knowledge  of  the  real  significance  of  instruction 
in  history.  If,  as  Rickert  claims,  history  is  really  to  be  a  cul- 
tural science,  we  must  be  able  to  show  clearly  what  benefit  man 
may  derive  from  a  knowledge  of  his  spiritual  history.  It  should 
be  the  aim  of  the  history  teacher  to  transform  historical  truths 
into  living  realities  with  a  view  to  enlarging  the  minds  of  his 
pupils  with  new  powers.  And  this  is  certainly  impossible  with- 
out a  knowledge  of  the  general  laws  of  spiritual  development, 
i.e.,  if  he  is  nothing  more  than  acquainted  with  human  nature, 
but  at  the  same  time  a  scientific  ps5'chologist. 

Rickert  refers  to  the  fact  that  many  great  historians  paid 
little  or  no  attention  to  the  scientific  psychology  of  their  age, 
and  concludes,  even  with  direct  reference  to  Lamprecht,  that 
the  application  of  scientifically  generalized  concepts  "  has  pro- 
duced more  confusion  than  contributed  to  progress."  In  reply 
I  should  like  to  direct  the  teacher  of  history  to  Lamprecht  him- 
self and  urge  them  to  learn  from  his  History  of  the  Germans 
and  perhaps  better  still  from  his  little  book  on  Modern  His- 
tory, how  much  help  the  historian  can  gain  for  the  intellectual 
analysis  of  historical  material  from  the  study  of  modern  scien- 
tific psychology. 

In  his  essay  on  "  The  Good  and  Bad  Influence  of  History  on 
Life,"  Nietzsche  has  described  the  psychological  effects  of  the 
study  of  history  with  telling  effect.  Every  teacher  of  history 
would  do  well  to  reflect  on  what  he  has  to  say  concerning  the 


The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary  Teacher       113 

"  monumental  "  and  more  especially  concerning  the  "  antiqua- 
rian "  type  of  history.  It  is  peculiarly  befitting  the  teacher  and 
the  learner  of  history  to  assume  the  attitude  of  the  "  perpetuator 
and  worshipper,  who,  with  fidelity  and  love,  is  peering  back 
into  the  things  from  whence  he  has  come,  in  which  he  has  come 
to  be."  To  discover  facts  in  the  common-places  of  life  which 
point  to  ages  long  past,  enlarges  and  enriches  the  soul.  Our 
division  of  time  into  weeks  takes  us  back  to  the  ancient  Bab- 
ylonians, the  year  to  the  Egyptians,  the  word  "  Kaiser  "  and 
the  names  of  the  months  of  July  and  August  show  how  two 
men  (Julius  and  Augustus  Cresar)  together  with  the  empire 
they  builded,  extend  the  impress  of  their  work  even  to  the 
present  time.  To  call  attention  to  such  facts  as  these  is  one 
of  the  important  duties  of  the  historian,  who  should  always 
begin  with  the  living  realities  of  the  present.  He  may  indeed 
learn  from  Nietzsche's  essay  just  cited  that  there  is  also  such 
a  thing  as  historic  excess,  which  is  harmful,  that  he  may  be  the 
more  concerned  to  seek  diligently  for  what  is  useful  in  history. 

A  general  conspectus,  psychological  penetration,  and  vital  ap- 
preciation of  the  present,  might  therefore  be  called  the  primary 
requirements  of  the  teacher  of  history'.  In  addition  to  this  he 
needs  a  wealth  of  detailed  information,  as  previously  observed. 
This  requires  the  historian  to  make  investigations  of  the  sources 
in  various  periods.  These  enable  him  to  get  hold  of  threads 
on  various  phases,  familiarize  him  with  the  records  and  permit 
him  to  penetrate  more  deeply  into  the  period  under  considera- 
tion at  definite  points. 

I  would  also  recommend  to  the  history  teacher  the  careful 
reading  of  collections  of  letters  and  memoirs,  because  they 
convey  a  more  vivid  picture  of  epochs  or  persons  than  anything 
else. 

Political  history,  notwithstanding  the  criticisms  brought 
against  it  during  recent  decades,  will  remain  for  a  long  time  to 
come  the  chief  business  of  the  historian.  It  constitutes  the 
foundation  upon  which  civilization  builds.  Edward  Meyer  has 
just  recently  emphasized  this  view  in  the  introductory  volume  of 
his  History  of  Antiquity  (3  ed.  igio),  a  book  which  every 
teacher  of  history  should  certainly  have  read.  "  But  even 
the  separation  of  the  history  of  civilization  from  political  his- 
tory  is  only   relatively   justified.     For  just   as   man   and    the 


114  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

human  social  group  is  a  spiritual  unit,  so  likewise  is  his  historical 
life;  the  real  and  highest  duty  of  the  science  of  histor}'  can 
therefore  be  nothing  less  than  the  description  of  this  life  in 
its  totality.  Hence  it  follows  without  further  comment,  that 
of  the  two  political  history  holds  the  dominant  place.^  For 
the  political  compact  governs  the  external  organization,  upon 
which  the  existence  and  manner  of  life  of  all  its  subjects  de- 
pends, its  fortunes  therefore  not  only  have  a  direct  effect  upon 
each  individual,  but  likewise  reacts  upon  every  institution  for 
which  it  is  responsible  and  hence  are  likewise  of  vital  significance 
to  the  cultural  and  economic  life." 

This  is  not  intended  to  mean  that  the  historian  is  simply  re- 
quired to  study  the  histor}^  of  states  and  their  territorial  changes. 
His  aim  to  comprehend  mankind  in  its  totality  however  pre- 
cludes his  indifference  to  the  evolution  of  religion,  science  and 
art.  An  understanding  of  the  various  economic  institutions  and 
consequently,  some  familiarity  with  the  basal  principles  of  po- 
litical economy  is  peculiarly  valuable  to  the  teacher  of  history. 
The  economic  conception  of  histor)'^  proposed  by  Marx  and 
Engels  fails  to  do  full  justice  to  certain  phases  of  historical 
development,  but  it  nevertheless  furnishes  an  important  heuristic 
principle.  In  everj^  case  of  a  great  world-movement  we  must 
seek  for  the  economic  motives  and  we  may  rest  assured  that  this 
setting  of  the  problem  will  yield  a  profounder  understanding  of 
the  period  under  consideration. 

It  naturally  follows  from  the  economic  interpretation  of 
history  that  the  historian  must  make  a  study  of  the  legal  con- 
ditions of  social  organization  and  he  must  therefore  acquire  a 
knowledge  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  jurisprudence. 
These  are  likewise  of  vast  importance  in  political  history  and 
even  on  this  account  indispensable  to  the  historian. 

It  is  of  course  not  necessary  that  the  teacher  of  history  make 
a  systematic  study  of  all  these  branches.  He  cannot  be  a 
specialist  in  theology,  art,  economics  and  law  combined.  He 
must  simply  keep  clearly  in  mind  the  fact  that  all  history  be- 
gins with  present  conditions  and  in  the  final  analysis  its  aim  is  to 
enrich  and  invigorate  the  present  generation.  If,  actuated 
by  this  idea,  he  is  careful  to  understand  the  spirit  of  his  own 
age,  to  comprehend  its  economic  conditions  and  its  social  char- 

1 1  do  not  think  so. 


The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary   Teacher       115 

acteristics,  he  will  readily  discover  the  ways  and  means  adapted 
to  his  individuality  for  acquiring  the  necessary  information. 

5.  Philosophical  Propaedeutic.  This  department  may  be 
correlated  with  the  mathematics-natural  science  disciplines  quite 
as  well  as  with  those  of  philology.  I  introduce  my  discussion 
of  this  topic  at  this  point  chiefly  for  the  reason  that  I  have 
approached  philosophy  through  philolog}^  and  in  giving  instruc- 
tion in  philosophical  propaedeutic  for  a  number  of  years  made  it 
a  practice  in  the  treatment  of  logic  and  psychology  to  draw 
materials  from  grammar  and  literature  as  well  as  from  mathe- 
matics and  ph^'sics. 

Any  one  who  has  already  decided  while  a  student  at  the 
university  to  prepare  for  teaching  philosophical  branches  will 
naturally  make  a  thorough  study  of  philosophical  problems  and 
particularly  history  of  philosophy.  The  teacher's  success  in 
inspiring  his  pupils  to  reflective  thought  will  largely  depend  on 
how  much  of  a  philosopher  he  is  himself.  It  is  evident  that  the 
teacher  will  naturally  incline  towards  teaching  those  parts  of 
philosophy  which  are  most  intimately  related  with  his  specialty. 
And  this  is  by  no  means  a  disadvantage  as  is  witnessed  by  the 
express  mention  made  of  it  in  the  Austrian  Regulations  of  the 
year  igoo  (p.  274).  We  read:  "  The  difference  of  specialized 
training  of  the  teacher  not  only  pertains  to  his  relation  to 
the  text  book,  but  to  the  whole  matter  of  instruction.  In  case 
he  has  specialized  in  history  and  language  he  will  naturally  take 
a  different  attitude  to  certain  parts  of  logic  and  psycholog}^ 
than  if  he  had  specialized  in  mathematics  and  the  natural 
sciences.  But  this  difference  of  coloring  of  all  instruction,  so 
far  as  results  are  concerned,  is  on  the  whole  not  objectionable." 
The  teacher  should  rather  strive  to  impress  the  full  force  of  his 
scientific  and  personal  individuality^  Otherwise  his  teach- 
ing will  lack  inspiration,  and  in  philosophical  propaedeutic  in- 
spiration is  the  chief  thing. 

Notwithstanding  this  however  we  must  note  the  fact  that 
in  logic  instruction  the  examples  of  physics  and  mathematics 
are  indispensable.  The  philologist  who  teaches  propaedeutic 
must  cultivate  these  departments  sufficiently  to  acquire  a  mas- 
tery of  the  fundamental  concepts.  To  secure  results  in  the 
teaching  of  logic  requires  a  wide  variet}^  of  illustration.  It  is  of 
great  importance  to  have  at  command  a  large  store  of  examples 


Ii6  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

and  to  possess  sufficient  knowledge  to  criticise  the  examples  sub- 
mitted by  the  pupils  both  formally  and  from  the  viewpoint  of 
fact. 

I  should  like  to  offer  a  suggestion  to  teachers  and  especially 
to  the  future  authors  of  text  books  in  logic.  There  is  a  field 
which  offers  a  rich  store  of  most  interesting  examples  that  would 
almost  alwaj'S  be  readily  understood,  that  has  not  yet  been 
utilized  in  instruction  nearly  as  much  as  it  should  be.  I  refer 
to  jurisprudence  and  its  practical  application.  Here  the  proc- 
esses of  logic  appear  in  their  purity  and  at  the  same  time 
in  such  variety  as  scarcely  occurs  anywhere  else.  Here  we  find 
the  process  of  the  subsumption  of  the  particular  case  under  the 
general  principle,  a  detailed  analysis  of  the  facts  in  the  case 
and  the  selection  of  the  pertinent  elements,  and  finally,  a  vast 
variety  of  processes  of  inference.  The  teacher  of  logic  who 
has  the  opportunity  and  the  taste  to  make  a  study  of  legal 
procedure  will  be  in  position  to  vitalize  his  instruction  to  a 
remarkable  degree.  He  will  gradually  make  the  discovery 
that  logic  is  far  from  being  the  supreme  lawgiver  of  thought 
as  it  has  usually  been  regarded  for  more  than  two  thousand 
years.  The  role  of  logic  in  science  and  the  affairs  of  life  is 
far  more  modest  than  that.  It  must  confine  itself  to  a  single 
problem,  namely,  to  give  us  a  clear  conception  by  showing  the 
precise  relation  of  ideas  the  amount  of  universal  and  at- 
tested experience,  contained  in  every  particular  experience  or 
in  every  complex  of  experiences.  The  real  problem  of  logic 
is  the  analysis  and  organization  of  ideas.  It  is  not  the  business 
of  logic  to  decide  questions  of  truth  or  error.  This  can  only 
be  done  by  a  profound  penetration  into  the  actual  conditions 
involved  by  the  facts.  The  examples  drawn  from  legal  prac- 
tice reveal  this  very  clearly.  Logic,  consisting  of  the  analysis 
and  organization  of  thought,  reveals  the  psychological,  social, 
economic  and  moral  relationships.  It  makes  it  possible  for  us  to 
survey  the  whole  field  and  finally  form  our  conclusions  on  the 
basis  of  a  thorough  comprehension  of  the  dominant  truth. 

That  is  to  say,  as  I  am  thoroughly  convinced,  we  are  in  need 
of  a  logic  which  is  based  on  an  empirical  foundation. 

If  the  teacher  has  convinced  himself  of  the  necessity  of  such 
a  treatment  of  the  subject  he  will  lay  stress  on  the  theory  of 
method  and  direct  his  efforts  towards  a  more  comprehensive 


The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary   Teacher       1 17 

and  a  more  profound  understanding  of  the  nature  of  scientific 
procedure.  And  thus  he  will  constantly  increase  his  ability 
to  advance  the  scientific  training  of  his  pupils  by  his  instruction 
in  logic. 

Psychology  seems  to  me  to  be  the  more  important  part  of  pro- 
paedeutic instruction.  The  matter  of  primary  importance  here 
is  that  the  teacher  should  be  as  thoroughly  trained  a  psycholo- 
gist as  possible.  He  should  be  familiar  with  the  results  and 
the  methods  of  experimental  psycholog}^  and  at  the  same  time 
never  neglect  the  introspective  element.  This  phase  of  psy- 
chology is  by  far  the  most  important.  The  zealous  teacher 
will  find  that  every  time  he  repeats  the  same  subject  new 
phases  will  be  revealed  and  that  it  is  a  matter  of  genuine  satis- 
faction to  have  the  opportunity  to  study  it  again.  Spiritual  life 
is  so  inexhaustively  rich  that  the  investigator  is  constantly  dis- 
covering something  new.  Has  not  even  Pleraclitus  observed: 
"  You  cannot  search  out  the  confines  of  the  soul,  even  though 
j'ou  should  step  off  ever>'  avenue,  so  profound  is  its  depth." 

It  seems  to  me  important  that  the  teacher  of  psychology  be  at 
home  in  literature  and  art.  Nothing  so  inspires  the  pupils  of 
the  higher  classes  than  the  psychological  analysis  of  several 
scenes  of  a  familiar  poem.  They  participate  eagerly  and  thus 
acquire  practice  in  psychological  analysis  and  at  the  same  time 
get  a  better  understanding  of  the  poets.  It  is  no  longer  a 
matter  of  question  that  the  psychologist  must  understand  the 
fundamental  facts  of  physiology.  It  is  perhaps  more  neces- 
sary here  to  warn  against  an  excess  of  physiology,  than  to  insist 
upon  its  study.  Ph3'siology  furnishes  no  information  whatever 
concerning  the  nature  of  the  psychical  process,  no  matter  how 
it  may  be  stated,  it  only  describes  the  phenomena  which  ac- 
company it. 

Personally  I  regard  it  far  more  important  that  the  teacher 
should  be  familiar  with  the  theory  of  evolution  and  acquire 
the  assurance  that  everything  psychical  bears  the  most  intimate 
relation  to  the  preservation  and  enrichment  of  life.  In  my 
Text  Book  of  Psychology  I  have  attempted  to  apply  the  bio- 
logical point  of  view  to  the  whole  field  of  mental  activity,  and 
I  think  I  have  demonstrated  the  fruitfulness  of  this  method. 
The  whole  process  of  thought  and  cognition  appears  in  a  new 
light,  the  nature  of  attention,  the  origin  of  the  concepts,  all 


Il8  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

of  these  become  clear  and  vital.  The  theory  of  the  emotions 
likewise  profits  quite  as  much  by  this  method  of  interpretation. 
And  we  may  add  that  in  recent  years  many  biologists  are  giving 
increased  attention  to  the  influence  of  psychical  processes  and 
express  the  conviction  that  it  is  utterly  impossible  to  reduce 
the  phenomena  of  life  to  mechanical  and  chemical  processes. 
This  gives  increased  significance  to  the  biological  viewpoint  in 
psychology. 

The  teacher  of  psychology  readily  finds  occasion  to  treat  of 
ethical  and  aesthetic  problems  in  the  course  of  his  instruction. 
It  is  exceedingly  desirable  therefore  that  he  should  feel  at 
home  in  these  fields.  Here  the  evolutionary  viewpoint  is  like- 
wise richly  suggestive.  I  should  like  to  direct  attention  in  this 
connection  to  the  very  valuable  and  instructive  work  by  Wester- 
marck,  Origin  and  Development  of  Moral  Ideas. 

Summarizing,  I  might  say  that  the  teacher  of  philosophical 
propaedeutic  should  make  the  synthesis  of  versatility  and  thor- 
oughness so  indispensable  to  every  secondary  teacher  his  own 
motto  in  even  greater  degree. 

B.     Mathematics  and  the  Natural  Sciences 

I.  Mathematics.  At  the  universities  the  mathematicians  oc- 
cupy themselves  almost  exclusively  with  the  so-called  higher 
mathematics,  i.e.,  with  differential  and  integral  calculus,  the 
theory  of  functions,  etc.  This  knowledge  contains  scarcely  any- 
thing that  can  be  adapted  to  any  practical  use  in  instruction. 
The  importance  attaching  to  rigorous  scientific  discipline  has 
frequently  given  rise  to  the  expression  of  the  wish  that  elemen- 
tary mathematics  also  be  explained  and  deduced  in  strict  scien- 
tific fashion  at  the  university.  Director  Joseph  Jacob,  in  an 
important  pamphlet  on  the  Austrian  Secondary  School,  among 
other  things,  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  history  of 
mathematics  abounds  in  suggestions  for  the  teacher,  and  recom- 
mends the  reading  of  the  classics  of  mathematics.  He  also 
insists  that  the  mathematician  should  seek  a  clear  understand- 
ing of  the  logical  functions  which  he  employ's. 

And  I  might  add  that  in  addition  to  the  history  of  mathe- 
matics and  the  logic  of  mathematics  the  psychology  of  the 
mathematical    process   is   of   vast   importance    to   the   teacher. 


I 


The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary   Teacher       1 19 

He  should  seek,  by  means  of  independent  reflection,  and  also  by 
suitable  experiments  with  himself  and  his  colleagues,  to  acquire 
a  clear  conception  of  the  significance  of  the  constructive  imagina- 
tion, the  memory  and  finally  of  abstract  thought  in  mathe- 
matics. He  may  perhaps  in  this  way  discover  criteria  by  which 
to  distinguish  mathematical  talent.  He  will  at  least  discover 
by  such  investigations  that  industr>^  and  intensive  repetition 
accomplish  more  in  mathematical  training  than  is  generally 
supposed.  According  to  my  experience  it  would  appear  that  the 
most  essential  mathematical  principles  may  be  acquired  even 
without  exceptional  talent,  and  this  seems  to  me  after  all  to  be 
the  chief  object  of  mathematical  instruction. 

It  is  also  important  that  the  teacher  of  mathematics  acquire 
some  knowledge  of  practical  affairs  in  order  that  he  may  un- 
derstand the  application  of  the  mathematical  formulae  to  survey- 
ing, militar}^  operations,  the  insurance  business,  etc.  I  have 
shown  above  that  these  formulae  only  acquire  real  significance 
in  physics. 

2.  Physics  and  Chemistry.  It  is  matter  of  first  importance 
to  the  teacher  of  these  two  subjects  that  he  begin  to  practice  ex- 
perimentation early  and  familiarize  himself  with  the  apparatus. 
But  on  this  point  it  is  necessary  to  observe  that  experiments 
entered  upon  for  the  ultimate  purpose  of  research  do  not  impart 
a  sufficient  degree  of  acquaintance  and  familiarity  for  the  pur- 
poses of  the  teacher.  They  must  be  exercises  which  deal  pre- 
dominantly with  the  school  experiments,  which  clearly  reveals 
the  law  which  is  being  illustrated  in  its  universal  significance. 

The  necessity  of  mathematical  training  for  the  physicist  and 
the  chemist  is  so  universally  acknowledged  and  so  constantly  im- 
pressed on  the  students  as  to  make  any  reference  to  it  here 
superfluous.  On  the  other  hand  it  seems  worth  while  to 
emphasize  even  here  that  the  teacher  should  master  the  methods 
of  investigation  and  the  instruments  of  thought  which  are  con- 
stantly becoming  more  exact.  Here  also  the  history  of  their 
subjects  will  be  of  great  service  to  them. 

In  optics  and  acoustics  and  partly  also  in  the  theory  of  heat 
the  physicist  comes  into  touch  with  the  physiology  of  the  senses 
as  well  as  the  psychology  of  sense  perception.  He  must  know 
enough  psychology  to  distinguish  precisely  the  physical,  the  phys- 
iological and  the  psychical  phases  of  the  process.     Pitch  is  doubt- 


I20  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

less  a  function  of  the  wave  length,  but  the  power  of  distinguish- 
ing higher  and  lower  tones,  as  well  as  arranging  in  orderly 
series  nevertheless  rests  upon  psychical  dispositions.  Physicists 
without  psychological  training  frequently  fall  into  gross  mis- 
understandings at  this  point. 

It  is  also  well  for  the  physicist  to  know  practical  affairs  and 
especially  to  study  the  technical  use  of  the  knowledge  of  nature. 
It  is  not  an  easy  task  for  the  teacher  to  keep  abreast  of  the 
progress  of  the  age,  especially  in  the  case  of  those  located  in 
small  country  towns.  For  this  purpose  the  vacation  courses 
are  to  be  strongly  recommended.  These  furnish  the  teacher 
with  the  latest  discoveries  and  improvements  made  in  his  sci- 
ence. 

3.  Natural  history.  The  scientific  development  of  zoology 
and  botany  has  resulted  in  placing  morphology  and  biology  in 
the  foreground  at  the  present  time.  It  follows  as  a  natural 
consequence  that  students  chiefly  confine  themselves  to  investi- 
gations to  which  the  primitive  organisms  are  better  adapted 
than  those  more  highly  developed.  Important  as  these  in- 
vestigations are  for  an  understanding  of  the  elementary  organic 
processes  and  valuable  as  they  can  be  made  for  the  purposes  of 
instruction,  we  must  not  forget  that  the  teacher  of  these  sub- 
jects dare  not  neglect  more  extensive,  systematic  information. 
He  must  have  complete  knowledge  of  the  fauna  and  flora  of 
his  own  territory,  otherwise  he  will  be  required  to  refer  to  his 
guide-book  too  frequently  when  making  excursions  with  his 
pupils.  He  should  also  be  informed  on  the  forms  and  condi- 
tions of  life  in  the  plant  and  animal  kingdom  in  other  lands. 

It  scarcely  requires  mention  that  the  teacher  of  natural 
history  must  understand  the  use  of  the  microscope  and  scalpel 
and  be  able  to  show  others  how  to  use  them.  The  more  he 
makes  use  of  them  the  greater  the  likelihood  of  inspiring  in- 
terest on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  It  is  also  generally  conceded 
now  that  the  botanist  and  zoologist  likewise  make  considerable 
use  of  chemistry  and  physics.  The  treatment  of  the  nervous 
system  in  human  anatomy  and  physiology  brings  the  teacher 
into  vital  touch  with  psychology  and  here  also,  just  as  in  the 
case  of  physics,  it  is  important  to  make  clear  distinctions  be- 
tween the  physiological  and  psychical  phases  of  the  various 
processes. 


The  Scientific  Problem  of  the  Secondary  Teacher       12 1 

The  vast  importance  recently  attained  by  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble geography  requires  the  historian  of  nature  to  make  a  study  of 
geography  and  the  history  of  origins.  It  would  even  be  well 
if  he  were  also  prepared  for  the  teaching  of  geography. 

4.  Geography.  The  extraordinary  progress  in  the  depart- 
ment of  geography  has  been  accompanied  by  a  most  gratifying 
activity  in  the  sphere  of  methods.  Here  in  Austria  Penck 
especially  has  trained  a  whole  generation  of  exceptionally  fine 
teachers  who,  equipped  with  methods  that  are  scientifically  at- 
tested, know  how  to  inspire  the  interest  of  their  pupils.  These 
circumstances  relieve  me  of  the  necessity  of  enlarging  on  the 
duty  of  the  teacher  of  geography. 

We  have  now  discussed  the  professional  problems  of  the 
secondary  teacher  both  in  general  and  in  detail.  The  guiding 
thought  throughout  this  discussion  has  been  the  difficult  combina- 
tion of  versatility^  and  thoroughness  with  the  positive  (in  an- 
tithesis to  the  critical)  tendency.  The  professional  equipment 
of  the  secondar>''  teacher  constitutes  the  indispensable  foundation 
for  the  exercise  of  his  calling,  which  consists  of  teaching  and 
training.  As  we  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  didactic  prob- 
lems of  our  vocation  we  shall  likewise  discover  new  and  difficult 
syntheses.  We  shall  also  make  the  positive  tendency  the  guiding 
principle  in  our  didactic  problems. 


CHAPTER  IV 

DIDACTICS 

I.     General  Principles  of  Method 

THE  purpose  we  should  seek  to  realize  on  behalf  of  our 
pupils,  we  trust,  has  been  made  sufficiently  clear  in  the 
discussions  contained  in  chapter  two  the  results  of  which  are 
summarized  in  the  form  of  brief  propositions  on  page  83. 
It  is  our  duty  to  train  the  pupils  which  we  receive  from  the 
elementary  schools  to  intellectual  independence  and  a  sense 
of  moral  responsibility  and  thus  prepare  them  for  both  the 
university  and  practical  life.  And  we  have  proposed  the  im- 
partation  of  a  general  education,  consisting  of  the  discipline  of 
intellect,  feeling  and  will  as  the  means  best  adapted  to  this 
end.  We  have  described  the  kind  of  intellectual  discipline 
belonging  to  the  secondary  school  as  scientific  training. 

This  accordingly  defines  the  aim  and  at  the  same  time  fur- 
nishes the  cue  to  the  course  of  study.  But  on  the  other  hand 
these  definitions  say  nothing  about  the  methods  we  shall  have  to 
employ  in  order  to  realize  the  desired  goal.  The  matter  of 
method  therefore  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  of  the  didactic  prob- 
lems of  the  secondary  school.  True,  we  have  an  abundant 
literature  on  methods  in  the  various  branches.  And  there  is  no 
lack  of  general  advice  on  such  matters  as  fidelity  to  duty,  and 
professional  dignity,  conduct  in  and  out  of  school,  relation  to 
pupils,  parents,  colleagues  and  to  the  educational  authorities. 
But  of  the  general  psychological  and  didactic  principles  which 
must  form  the  basis  of  the  whole  business  of  teaching,  of  the 
well-established  and  evident  principles  which  should  govern 
every  secondary  teacher  we  scarcely  find  any  clearly  elaborated 
statement  anj^where.  It  seems  to  me,  if  mutual  cooperation, 
unfortunately  sadly  lacking  among  us,  is  to  become  an  actual 
fact  and  produce  the  desired  results  that  some  such  statement 
is  absolutely  necessary.     The  nature  of  our  method  of  teaching 

122 


Didactics  123 

is  entirely  unique  and,  if  we  are  to  fulfill  our  vocation  in  any 
degree,  requires  the  realization  of  most  difficult  combinations. 
We  shall  have  to  learn  from  our  colleagues  in  the  public  school 
not  only  how  to  impart  the  materials  of  instruction  and  render 
them  comprehensible,  but  even  to  so  infuse  it  into  the  whole 
school  so  as  to  become  the  complete  possession  of  the  pupils.  We 
must  endeavor  to  perfect  ourselves  in  this  method  which  is 
the  only  one  possible  in  the  lower  grades,  and  at  the  same  time 
seek  to  get  the  secret  of  success  in  getting  the  pupils  to  do  in- 
dependent work,  from  our  university  instructors,  especially 
those  who  conduct  practical  courses.  We  are  supposed  to 
develop  intellectual  independence  and  the  sense  of  moral  re- 
sponsibility and  at  the  same  time  maintain  our  authority.  We 
are  supposed  to  impart  positive  information  and  at  the  same 
time  we  must  never  forget  that  the  permanent  possession  of 
this  information  and  skill  is  not  the  most  important  thing  so  far 
as  our  pupil  is  concerned,  but  much  rather  that  the  effort  re- 
quired in  the  acquisition  of  the  facts  and  the  discipline  of  mind 
and  character  thus  brought  about  must  be  regarded  as  the 
permanent  result. 

It  is  not  a  simple  task  to  meet  such  varied  requirements.  But 
we  have  frequently  observed  before;  difficult  and  impossible  are 
two  entirely  different  things,  and  obstacles  are  capable  of  being 
overcome.  Our  pupils  are  under  our  care  for  a  period  of 
from  seven  to  nine  years,  certainly  not  too  short  a  time.  Dur- 
ing these  years  our  pupils  pass  the  pubertal  period  which  works 
a  profound  change  in  personality.  Particularly  an  intense  im- 
pulse towards  independence  reveals  itself  during  this  period. 
This  impulse  is  by  no  means  to  be  forcefully  suppressed.  It  is 
rather  our  duty  to  furnish  this  natural  impulse  its  proper 
nurture  and  guidance.  We  receive  the  pupils  from  the  public 
school  where  they  were  accustomed  to  do  their  study  in  the 
school.  In  the  lower  classes  we  must  therefore  pursue  the  same 
method.  But  even  then  we  shall  have  to  require  a  small  amount 
of  work  at  home  in  order  to  awaken  the  sense  of  responsibility. 
Training  and  developing  the  sense  of  responsibilit}^  is  in  fact 
our  most  important  problem.  And  here  unfortunately  there 
is  much  wanting  from  two  points  of  view.  On  the  one  hand 
we  frequently  require  and  expect  a  greater  degree  of  intellec- 
tual and  moral  independence  from  the  pupils  of  the  lower  classes 


124  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

than  their  psychological  capacity  permits.  And  on  the  other 
hand  we  hold  the  pupils  of  the  more  advanced  classes  so  firmly 
to  leading  strings,  that  they  find  the  gymnasium  an  intolerable 
restraint  from  which  there  is  no  hope  of  escape.  It  is  in  fact  not 
an  easy  matter,  in  seeking  to  develop  independence,  always 
to  strike  the  psychological  moment,  the  correct  tack  and  stay 
within  the  proper  bounds  of  conduct. 

I  have  experienced  a  growing  consciousness  of  these  difficul- 
ties, throughout  the  course  of  my  professional  career,  but  I  have 
at  the  same  time  seen  that  they  are  by  no  means  insuperable. 
I  have  found  it  comparatively  easy  in  the  lower  classes  to  drill 
in  the  lessons  effectively  during  school  hours  and  at  the  same 
time  require  a  small  amount  of  outside  work  of  the  pupils  daily. 
I  have  always  kept  a  strict  oversight  of  these  lessons  with  the 
result  that  the  required  work  soon  became  so  habitual  with 
the  pupils  that  only  in  the  rarest  cases  would  a  pupil  fail  to 
show  results.  In  the  more  advanced  classes  moreover  I  made 
it  a  point  to  establish  the  same  habit  of  preparation,  always  ap- 
pealing to  the  pupil's  independence  as  strongly  as  possible.  I 
have  even  gone  so  far  as  to  challenge  them  to  criticise  my  lec- 
tures and  have  more  than  once  had  occasion  in  both  the  higher 
classes  in  logic  and  psychology  to  say  to  the  pupils:  "And 
so  you  do  not  accept  everything  I  say."  And  only  in  the  rarest 
instances  was  it  necessary  to  apply  or  suggest  disciplinary  penal- 
ties. Neither  was  there  any  evidence  that  the  incitement  to 
independent  judgment  and  my  direct  challenge  of  criticism  af- 
fected my  authority  in  the  least.  The  contrary  was  rather  the 
case. 

My  psychological  and  philosophical  studies  suggested  the 
effort  to  reduce  my  didactic  experience  to  system  and  base  it  on 
general  principles.  To  this  end  I  first  of  all  sought  fellowship 
with  colleagues  of  the  public  school,  among  whom  methodical 
confidence  is  usually  greater  than  among  us.  I  gained  much 
inspiration  and  information  from  two  summer  courses  for 
public  and  high  school  teachers  at  which  I  was  one  of  the  lec- 
turers. At  first  it  appeared  to  me  that  instruction  is  more  diffi- 
cult in  the  public  school  than  in  ours,  and  this  chiefly  on  account 
of  the  fact  that  the  public  school  has  no  such  means  of  eliminat- 
ing the  incapable  and  indolent  pupils  as  we  have.  Upon  deeper 
reflection  however  I  discovered,  by  means  of  careful  observation 


I 


Didactics  125 

of  the  teachers'  conferences,  that  this  duty  of  sifting  devolving 
upon  us,  whilst  reducing  the  difficulties,  in  no  way  results  in  any 
improv^ement  in  the  instruction.  We  are  too  much  inclined  to 
shift  the  poor  results  of  teaching  to  the  indolence,  limited 
capacity  or  inadequate  preparation  of  the  pupils  and  frequently 
neglect  to  ask  ourselves  conscientiously  whether  we  have  really 
done  ever\'thing  in  our  power  to  overcome  these  difficulties. 

The  difference  in  the  matter  of  methods  between  the  public 
and  the  secondar}^  school  lies  in  an  entirely  different  quarter. 
The  knowledge  of  the  subject  matter  to  be  imparted  in  the 
public  school  is  comparatively  easy  for  the  teacher,  almost  a 
matter  of  self-evidence.  With  us  on  the  contrar>^  the  subject- 
matter  is  frequently  quite  complex  and  difficult.  It  is  no  small 
task  for  the  teacher  to  master  the  material,  and  make  it  com- 
pletely his  own.  Not  infrequently  we  must  first  learn  what 
we  are  to  teach.  And  we  must  add  the  further  fact:  namely, 
the  university  has  accustomed  us  to  systematic  thought,  such 
as  science  requires.  Even  our  courses  of  instruction  are  fre- 
quently more  systematic  than  methodical.  Hence  it  follows 
that  the  preparation  for  the  instruction  period  is  frequently 
rather  a  scientific  and  systematic  task.  This  requires  a  large 
measure  of  our  energ>^  so  that  but  little  remains  for  methodical 
and  didactical  elaboration.  The  synthesis  of  science  and  peda- 
gogy', discussed  in  the  first  chapter,  is  in  fact  ver\^  difficult  and 
not  possible  for  evtry  one. 

But  these  obstacles  involved  in  our  scientific  training  and  in 
the  difficulty  of  the  subject-matter  must  be  overcome  no  mat- 
ter what  the  cost.  We  fail  to  meet  our  exalted  social  ob- 
ligation if  we  do  not  direct  even^  energ\'  towards  making  our- 
selves teachers  and  trainers  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  term.  We 
are  expected  to  instil  scientific  training  in  our  pupils  and  to  in- 
spire in  them  the  sense  of  moral  responsibility.  We  must 
therefore  search  out  the  way,  i.e.,  the  method,  that  leads  most 
directly  and  most  certainly  to  this  high  goal.  Many  will  of 
course  find  this  way  themselves,  if,  thoroughly  equipped  with 
knowledge  and  naturally  filled  with  a  love  for  youth,  they 
bring  to  their  task  a  fixed  purpose  and  keep  themselves  under 
constant  self-discipline.  But  the  discovery  of  established  meth- 
ods of  instruction  which  could  be  applied  to  any  kind  of  subject 
matter  and  at  any  stage  of  development  would  certainly  sim- 


126  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

plify  this  task  for  many  teachers.  I  think  I  have  discovered 
two  such  principles  which  must  give  direction  to  the  whole  course 
of  our  instruction.  One  of  these  is  the  awakening  of  interest 
and  the  other  the  habit  of  regular  work. 

Didactically,  these  principles  are  neither  new  nor  original. 
I  might  rather  apply  to  them  the  profound  scriptural  saying 
concerning  the  divine  law:  "  For  this  commandment  which  I 
command  thee  this  day,  it  is  not  hidden  from  thee,  neither  is  it 
far  off.  It  is  not  in  heaven,  that  thou  shouldest  say,  Who  shall 
go  up  for  us  to  heaven,  and  bring  it  unto  us,  that  we  may  hear 
it,  and  do  it?  Neither  is  it  beyond  the  sea,  that  thou  shouldest 
say.  Who  shall  go  over  the  sea  for  us,  and  bring  it  unto  us,  that 
we  may  hear  it,  and  do  it?  But  the  word  is  very  nigh  unto 
thee  in  thy  mouth,  and  in  thy  heart,  that  thou  mayest  do  it." 
(Deut.  30,  11-14.)  Every  teacher  is  in  position  to  acquire 
these  principles  and  to  make  them  the  guiding  thought  of  every 
period  of  instruction.  The  only  point  is  that  we  comprehend  the 
significance  of  these  principles  in  their  application  to  the  in- 
struction of  the  secondary  school  in  all  its  breadth  and  depth. 
With  a  view  to  simplifying  this  we  shall  therefore  subject  each 
of  them  to  a  thorough  analysis. 

2.     Awakening  Interest  as  a  Principle  of  Instruction 

The  pedagogical  importance  of  interest  has  long  been  recog- 
nized. Even  Herbart  regarded  the  many-sidedness  of  interest 
as  the  chief  end  of  all  instruction  and  elaborates  this  idea  in 
detail  in  the  second  book  of  his  General  Pedagogy.  Mod- 
ern text  books  in  pedagogy  and  monographic  literature  make 
abundant  reference  to  this  topic.  My  reasons  for  adding  an- 
other analytic  discussion  of  the  pedagogy  of  interest  and  for 
showing  its  application  to  the  secondary  school  are  twofold. 

The  first  reason  is  that,  according  to  my  own  observations, 
we  have  not  as  yet  attached  sufficient  importance  to  the  awaken- 
ing of  interest.  Classical  philologists  place  more  stress  on  ac- 
curacy in  grammatical  construction  and  carefulness  in  prepara- 
tion than  in  inspiring  pleasure  in  the  reading  of  the  classical 
authors  and  a  genuine  appreciation  of  antiquity  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils.  The  mathematician  places  more  stress  on  faultless 
accuracy  in  demonstration,   the  skillful   manipulation  of  the 


Didactics  127 

formulae,  the  accurate  arrangement  of  the  external  form  and 
rigorous  definitions,  than  on  the  gradual  development  of  self- 
activity  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  and  the  satisfaction  accom- 
panying the  sense  of  individual  accomplishment.  The  historian 
wants  his  pupils  to  know  dates  accurately,  to  understand  and 
recognize  the  growth  of  constitutions  in  their  various  phases, 
and  fails  to  lay  constant  stress  on  developing  the  historic  sense 
and  inspiring  the  pupils  with  an  interest  in  the  past  history  of 
their  own  nation.  Even  the  teachers  of  German  who  seem  so 
peculiarly  in  position  to  inspire  love  for  the  mother  tongue  and 
an  appreciation  of  the  works  of  their  poets  and  thinkers  are  not 
infrequently  more  concerned  —  and  that  especially  in  case  they 
are  exceptionally  industrious  professionally  —  that  the  pupils 
learn  the  histor>'  of  literature,  that  they  strictly  follow  the  rules 
in  their  essay  writings,  and  that  they  accurately  learn  the  con- 
tent and  date  of  each  of  the  great  productions.  On  the  whole 
the  principle  of  coercion  still  dominates  us  and  rigorous  dis- 
cipline seems  to  be  more  important  than  spontaneous  participa- 
tion. However  I  should  be  the  very  last  to  deny  the  value  of 
rigorous  discipline.  I  will  show  in  detail  what  importance  I 
would  attach  to  it  in  the  discussion  of  the  second  didactic  prin- 
ciple. But  I  am  firmly  of  the  opinion  that  the  prerequisite  to 
rigorous  discipline  is  the  quickening  of  the  sense  of  satisfaction 
in  one's  own  mental  achievements.  If  we  neglect  to  carefully 
cultivate  this  subjective  satisfaction  in  teaching  and  to  inspire 
pleasure  in  the  self-activity  of  the  intellect,  in  short,  if  we  do 
not  know  how  to  enlist  the  interest  of  the  pupils,  then  indeed 
discipline  fails  to  reach  the  sanctuary  of  the  soul  and  remains  an 
evanescent  objective  constraint,  a  bond,  to  be  cast  aside  as 
quickly  as  possible.  On  this  account  it  seems  to  me  of  utmost 
importance  to  impress  upon  teachers  that  their  first  and  most 
important  duty  is  to  inspire  interest,  which  is  in  fact  nothing 
more  than  to  inspire  the  sense  of  satisfaction  in  the  exercise 
of  the  native  mental  powers.  The  splendid  saying  of  St.  / 
Augustine  applies  here:  Spontaneous  interest  accomplishes 
more  in  learning  than  force  inspired  by  fear. 

The  second  reason  which  leads  me  to  place  the  principle  of 
interest  in  the  foreground  of  secondary  didactics  is  the  pro- 
founder  insight  into  the  psychical  nature  of  interest  furnished  us 
by  modern  psychology'.     I  have  previously    (p.  67)    indicated 


128  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

what  constitutes  the  nature  of  interest  and  will  now  attempt  to 
develop  it  more  fully. 

First  of  all  interest  is  experienced  as  a  feeling  of  pleasure. 
Even  that  in  itself  is  of  vast  significance.  The  value  of  joy 
in  moral  development  and  in  education  is  still  far  from  receiv- 
ing adequate  appreciation.  Joy  has  an  out-spreading,  expansive 
as  well  as  a  concentrating  energj^  It  furnishes  us  with  new 
positive  impulses  and  has  something  of  the  creative  nature  about 
it.  Instruction  that  furnishes  pupils  with  joy  is  valuable  for 
this  reason  alone.  The  teacher  who  succeeds  in  keeping  pupils 
agreeably  occupied  by  this  fact  alone  secures  their  complete  ab- 
sorption in  their  task,  the  concentration  of  their  whole  mental 
energy  upon  it,  which  simply  means  that  they  are  attentive.  In- 
numerable complaints  of  the  inattentiveness  of  pupils  would  be 
silenced  if  all  teachers  would  make  it  their  duty  to  inspire  inter- 
est, i.e.,  joy  in  the  subject  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  Cheerful- 
ness is  therefore  valuable  in  itself  in  teaching,  but  it  is  not  the 
only  thing.  This  might  in  fact  also  be  accomplished  by  spend- 
ing the  class  period  in  exchanging  jokes  and  having  fun  with  the 
pupils.  St.  Augustine's  observation,  "  Interest,  unde  quis 
gaudeat,"  is  not  an  empty  phrase.  The  source  of  our  joy  is 
not  a  matter  of  indifference.  And  here  also  the  psychology  of 
interest  furnishes  guidance.  Not  every  kind  of  pleasurable 
feeling  is  to  be  ascribed  to  interest.  Interest  is  rather,  as 
previously  shown  (p.  67),  functional  pleasure  and  in  fact  a  dis- 
tinct kind  of  functional  pleasure.  The  joyous  excitation  and 
disposition,  which  we  call  interest,  arises  from  the  fact  that  we 
have  been  furnished  an  opportunity  of  exercising  our  intellec- 
tual functions  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  There  is  a  native 
demand  for  such  mental  activity  and  interest  is  nothing  more 
than  the  pleasure  arising  from  the  satisfaction  of  the  functional 
demands  of  our  intellect.  This  conception  of  interest  is  the 
logical  result  of  the  genetic  and  biological  method  of  interpreting 
the  psychical  process  rigorously  carried  to  its  conclusion.  But 
many  descriptive  psychologists  of  former  and  recent  times  have 
likewise  arrived  at  similar  conclusions.  Thus,  for  example, 
Garve  says  that  all  satisfaction  proceeds  from  the  things  which 
engage  our  thoughts  or  stimulate  our  sensations,  and  one  of 
our  most  prominent  psychologists,  Karl  Stumpf,  defines  interest 
as  the  pleasure  accompanying  the  act  of  awareness. 


Didactics  129 

The  joy  which  we  provide  for  our  pupils  by  enlisting  their 
interest  is  therefore  at  the  same  time  an  incitement  to  self-ac- 
tivity and  it  is  even  this  that  constitutes  the  real  significance  of 
this  didactic  principle.  The  more  frequently  and  intensely  we 
succeed  in  leading  the  pupils  to  find  satisfaction  in  their  own 
thoughts  and  judgments,  so  much  the  better  are  they  prepared  to 
acquire  scientific  training  and  thus  attain  to  intellectual  inde- 
pendence. The  frequent  and  intensive  stimulation  of  their 
interest  not  only  satisfies  their  intellectual  requirements,  but  like- 
wise strengthens  them.  We  thus  bring  it  to  pass  that,  to  use  a 
profound  scriptural  expression,  "  the  draught  increases  the 
thirst."  We  must  endeavor,  by  arousing  interest,  to  develop 
a  desire  for  knowledge,  a  kind  of  hungering  after  knowledge, 
in  order  that  the  pupils  respond  to  our  instructions  sponta- 
neously and  readily  assimilate  what  is  presented  to  them.  Our 
task  thus  becomes  easier,  more  pleasant  and  even  more  effective. 

Still  another  fact  needs  to  be  added.  Man's  pleasure-feelings 
are  capable  of  an  intense,  far-reaching  differentiation.  This 
differentiation  of  the  pleasure-feelings  has  played  an  important 
human  civilization,  an  element  alas,  which  has  hitherto  been 
almost  wholly  neglected  by  the  historian  and  sociologist.  The 
differentiation  of  the  pleasure-feelings  has  played  an  important 
part,  e.g.,  in  the  origin  of  language,  and  it  is  likewise  the  basis  of 
the  constant  refinement  of  aesthetic  enjoyment.  In  view  of 
this  possibility  for  differentiation  our  pedagogic  principle  ac- 
quires a  new  significance. 

The  functional  need  of  the  intellect  is  present  in  even,^  normal 
pupil  at  every  period  of  development,  within  the  range  of  our 
consideration.  This  need  is  satisfied  in  a  variety  of  ways  by  the 
different  subjects  of  instruction.  Presupposing  that  all  teachers 
understand  how  to  enlist  the  interest  of  their  pupils,  there  are 
therefore  many  kinds  of  functional  pleasure,  and,  if  I  am  per- 
mitted to  say  so,  the  pupils'  capacity  for  intellectual  pleasure  is 
thus  differentiated  and  the  sphere  of  his  mental  life  greatly  en- 
larged. In  this  way  the  disadvantages  which  attend  the  ex- 
cessive variety  of  subjects  of  instruction  are  at  least  in  part 
overcome. 

The  differentiation  of  the  pleasure-feelings  is  important 
likewise  from  the  fact  that  we  are  thus  led,  by  our  effort  to 
awaken  interest,  to  observe  the  individuality  of  our  pupils.     In 


130  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

one  case  we  find  that  the  functional  needs  of  the  intellect  are 
peculiarly  satisfied  by  the  analysis  of  the  forms  of  speech,  an- 
other by  a  difficult  mathematical  problem,  a  third  is  incited  to 
independent  activity  by  the  study  of  a  plant.  However  I  do 
not  wish  myself  to  be  classed  with  the  pedagogues  who  find  the 
hope  of  education  in  the  intensive  cultivation  of  onesided  talent. 
But  an  understanding  of  the  individuality  of  the  pupils  is  nev- 
ertheless of  vast  importance  and  this  is  enhanced  by  the  effective 
application  of  our  pedagogic  principle. 

That  our  pupils  are  natively  endowed  with  intellectual  func- 
tional needs  and  that  the  satisfaction  of  these  needs  affords  them 
pleasure  are  psychological  facts  which  simply  cannot  be  ruled 
out.  And  the  inevitable  logic  of  these  facts  is  that  the  quicken- 
ing of  interest  is  one  of  our  most  fundamental  and  insistent 
duties.  It  is  not  simply  a  matter  of  the  teacher  presenting  cer- 
tain established  facts  and  that  of  his  understanding  how  to  enlist 
the  interest  of  his  pupils  and  keep  them  awake  during  the  pre- 
sentation merely  signifies  a  creditable  additional  service.  It 
must  not  be  said;  the  chief  thing  is  that  the  pupils  learn 
something,  either  with  or  without  interest,  as  to  this  it  matters 
little.  We  must  rather  be  filled  with  the  conviction  that  the 
enlistment  of  interest  is  the  very  first  thing  which  we  must 
seek  to  attain  and  that  every  lesson  is  valueless  in  which  the 
pupils  were  not  incited  to  pleasurable  self-activity. 

Before  proceeding  to  discuss  the  practical  significance  and 
application  of  this  pedagogic  principle  I  must  explain  another 
misconception  that  frequently  attaches  to  the  words  "  interest  " 
and  "  interesting."  When  we  insist  on  instruction  being  in- 
teresting to  the  pupils,  some  seem  to  think  that  it  means  the 
addition  of  inspiring  suggestions,  original  settings,  and  perhaps 
even  all  kinds  of  sarcasm.  And  since  not  every  teacher  is  skilled 
in  this  kind  of  thing,  it  produces  a  profound  opposition,  in  fact 
even  a  kind  of  contempt  for  teachers  with  a  reputation  of  being 
"  interesting."  "  It  is  of  course  very  nice,"  it  is  frequently  ob- 
served, "  if  one  can  do  it,  to  attract  and  stimulate  the  pupils 
with  all  kinds  of  novelties,  but  the  actual  learning  nevertheless 
thereby  suffers  harm."  In  answer  to  such  views,  which  I  have 
frequently  heard  expressed,  I  must  protest  most  emphatically 
that  in  advocating  interest  as  the  most  important  pedagogic  prin- 
ciple I  have  never  meant,  even  in  the  remotest  way,  inspiring 


Didactics  131 

suggestions  and  sarcasm.  It  does  not  require  "  spirit  "  to  inspire 
interest.  It  simply  requires  the  serious  purpose  to  so  arrange 
the  matter  of  instruction  that  it  will  not  consist  merely  of  recita- 
tion and  drill,  but  so  as  to  furnish  the  pupils  the  opportunity 
of  exercising  their  own  intellectual  powers  in  a  pleasurable  way. 
I  shall  attempt  to  illustrate  this  by  several  examples  in  what  fol- 
lows. 

3.     Interest  as  a  Pedagogic  Principle.     Its  Practical 
Significance  and  Application 

In  speaking  of  interest  I  refer  exclusively  to  the  pleasure  in- 
cident to  the  exercise  of  our  intellectual  functions,  i.e.,  what 
is  ordinarily  described  as  theoretical  or  intellectual  interest. 
The  word  is  also  frequently  used  in  the  sense  of  benefit  or  ad- 
vantage, which  is  the  older  meaning  of  the  term.  The  two 
meanings  have  been  sharply  differentiated  in  the  course  of  their 
evolution  so  that  the  word  now  represents  entirely  different 
ideas.  But  an  effort  has  been  made  to  combine  the  two  mean- 
ings. This  is  specially  true  of  Ostermann  in  the  monograph 
cited  above.  But  such  a  forced  combination  makes  the  uses  of 
the  term  so  vague  and  general  as  to  be  of  very  little  practical  use 
to  the  teacher.  If  interest  means  every  subjective  participation 
and,  e.g.,  the  whole  subject  matter  of  ethics  is  treated  under 
this  head,  it  loses  all  distinctiveness  and  definiteness  as  a  peda- 
gogic principle. 

Let  it  be  understood  therefore  that  for  us  interest  as  a  peda- 
gogic principle  always  mean  simply  the  functional  pleasure  of 
the  intellect.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  I  shall  seek  to  indicate  its 
practical  significance  and  application. 

The  fact  that  mental  self-activity  can  be  pleasurable  and  fur- 
nish subjective  joy  only  as  it  effects  results  is  quite  common- 
place, but  it  is  of  profound  importance  in  the  practical  applica- 
tion of  this  pedagogic  principle.  Our  effort  must  accomplish 
something  if  we  are  to  get  any  pleasure  out  of  it.  We  have  a 
good  illustration  of  this  fact,  which  is  at  once  perfectly  clear, 
in  the  case  of  an  exercise  undertaken  solely  for  its  own  sake  and 
not  with  a  view  to  the  realization  of  some  definite  end.  I 
refer  to  the  solving  of  conundrums.  Any  one  who  has  no 
taste  for  conundrums  and  gets  nothing  out  of  them  will  soon  lay 


132  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

aside  the  conundrum  book  which  happens  to  fall  into  his  hands, 
whilst  some  one  else,  who  readily  solves  them,  can  occupy 
himself  with  it  for  hours.  I  have  tried  this  out  on  myself  and 
on  others  with  the  exceptionally  suggestive  conundrum  book 
published  by  Franz  Brentano  under  the  title  Aennigatias.  Here 
it  is  at  once  evident  that  only  successful  exercise  is  pleasurable. 

It  follows  from  this  that  the  teacher,  especially  at  the  be- 
ginning of  a  new  subject  or  a  new  division,  must  set  the  pupils  to 
work  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable  them  to  accomplish  what  he 
wants  quite  easily,  even  playfully.  This  will  produce  the 
pleasurable  attitude  which  in  turn  effects  its  creative  result  and 
likewise  prepares  the  pupils  for  more  difficult  tasks. 

We  must  likewise  remember  that  in  the  lower  grades  the 
pupils'  need  of  activity  is  comparatively  easily  satisfied.  Even 
the  reciting  of  a  brief  passage  from  a  foreign  language  gives 
them  pleasure,  and  if  a  concert  exercise  is  added,  a  class  so 
trained  can  soon  be  given  something  more  difficult.  Instead  of 
any  further  detailed  elaboration  I  should  like  to  illustrate  by  a 
concrete  example  how  I  conceive  the  application  of  our  peda- 
gogic method  in  a  lower  grade  and  for  this  purpose  I  select  be- 
ginners' Latin. 

The  reader  begins  for  example  with  the  sentences:  Alanda 
volat  and  Luscinia  cantat.  The  teacher  reads  the  first  sentence 
and  has  six  or  eight  of  the  pupils  repeat  it  after  him,  at  first 
separately  and  then  the  whole  class  together.  He  then  trans- 
lates it  and  has  them  repeat  the  Latin  sentence  again  together 
with  its  translation.  He  then  proceeds  to  the  second  sentence 
and  proceeds  in  the  same  wa}^  The  pupils  are  perceptibly  happy 
over  the  fact  that  they  can  already  translate  two  Latin  sen- 
tences and  they  are  in  an  enthusiastic  mood,  if  only  the  teacher 
knows  how  to  maintain  it  and  sets  an  inspiring  pace.  He  can 
now  turn  to  the  different  sound  of  the  c  in  the  words  luscinia 
and  cantat  and  then  proceed  to  the  more  important  and  more 
difficult  problem  of  Latin  pronunciation.  He  asks,  for  exam- 
ple; How  many  syllables  in  volat f  Answer;  Two.  Which  is 
accented?  The  first.  Observe,  therefore,  pupils;  Dissyllables 
in  Latin  always  have  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable.  Does  the 
same  principle  apply  to  the  pronunciation  of  German?  The 
answers  are  indefinite  and  varied.  Mention  several  German 
dissyllables  which  accent  the  first  syllable.     The  pupils  respond 


Didactics  133 

with:  Vater,  Mutter,  Bruder,  Schwester,  etc.  But  now  men- 
tion some  dissyllables  that  are  accented  on  the  second  syllable. 
The  pupils  respond:  gerecht,  bequem,  geführt,  gescheit,  etc. 
Observe  therefore,  this  never  happens  in  Latin.  All  dissyllables 
in  Latin  are  accented  on  the  first  syllable.  Thus  far  it  has 
been  easy  and  all  the  pupils  could  easily  follow.  And  it  is  just 
this  fact  that  has  developed  the  enthusiastic  attitude  which  per- 
mits us  to  proceed  a  step  further.  How  many  sjdlables  in 
alanda?  Three.  Pronounce  the  accented  syllable?  Lan. 
What  syllable  is  it  counting  from  the  end  of  the  word?  The 
pupil  may  not  understand  this  at  once.  We  therefore  ask: 
How  do  you  pronounce  the  last  syllable  ?  Answer :  Da.  What 
then  would  you  call  lan?  The  next  to  the  last.  Very  well. 
We  have  a  trisyllable  here  in  which  the  next  to  the  last  syllable  is 
accented.  Where  have  we  had  another  word  of  more  than  two 
syllables  ?  —  Several  pupils  respond :  Luscinia.  Very  well. 
How  many  syllables  does  it  have  ?  Answer :  four.  How  is  the 
accented  syllable  pronounced?  Answer:  ci.  What  number 
is  it  from  the  end?  And  if  the  answer  is  not  forthcoming,  we 
ask  again  for  the  last,  and  then  for  the  next  to  the  last,  and 
then  show  that  in  this  case  the  third  syllable  from  the  last  is 
accented. —  Now,  observe,  children :  In  words  of  more  than 
t^vo  syllables  the  accent  frequently  falls  on  the  next  to  the  last 
syllable  and  frequently  on  the  third  from  the  last. —  I  would 
not  attempt  to  go  further  than  this  in  the  first  exercise.  If  time 
should  permit  I  should  rather  read  and  translate  one  or  two 
more  sentences  and  study  the  application  of  the  rules  of  pro- 
nunciation just  learned  to  the  words  of  these  sentences. 

In  this  way  all  the  pupils  are  busy,  none  of  them  is  over- 
questioned,  and  all  follow  and  are  able  to  grasp  and  retain 
what  has  been  presented.  The  pleasure  of  achievement  must 
be  aroused  and  a  vital  enthusiasm  developed  which  concen- 
trates and  strengthens  the  mental  powers.  This  is  what  I  un- 
derstand by  the  principle  of  the  quickening  of  interest.  It  is 
readily  observed,  this  does  not  require  any  exceptional  capacity 
or  genius.  It  only  requires  a  thorough,  detailed,  preparation,  a 
definite  aim,  an  enthusiastic  movement  and  two  more  factors 
which  every  teacher  must  have ;  patience  and  love. 

It  has  been  my  repeated  experience  that  by  pursuing  this 
method  during  the  first  six  or  eight  weeks  practically  all  the 


134  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

pupils  follow  and  I  can  never  believe  therefore  that  Latin  is 
too  difficult  for  ten  j^ear  old  children.  The  subject  matter  be- 
comes more  complex  farther  on  and  the  number  of  delinquents 
will  be  greater.  But  this  is  not  due  to  the  difficulty  of  the 
subject,  but  on  account  of  the  fact  that  our  text  books  contain 
too  much  vocabulary  and  too  much  details  of  syntax  and  that 
the  content  of  the  sentences  are  not  always  capable  of  holding 
attention. 

I  have  had  frequent  opportunity  in  instruction  in  beginners' 
Greek  to  observe  the  creative  power  developed  by  the  pleasurable 
attitude.  The  impression  is  likewise  intensified  by  a  remarkable 
contrast  effect  as  I  shall  presently  show.  With  us  in  Austria 
the  study  of  Greek  begins  in  the  third  grade  (corresponding 
to  quarta  in  Germany).  It  is  customary  with  us  that  in  the 
lower  grades  the  teacher  of  Greek  likewise  has  the  Latin.  In 
this  way  it  has  happened  that  during  the  period  of  my  teaching  I 
have  frequently  been  in  the  position  of  teaching  Latin  and 
Greek  in  the  third  grade.  But  the  study  of  Latin  in  this  grade 
is  not  very  rich  in  interesting  material.  Cornelius  Nepos  is 
frequently  dry  bean-pods  and  even  the  lessons  in  grammar,  the 
case-endings,  are  not  specially  attractive.  On  the  other  hand 
I,  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  the  Greek  language  and  every- 
thing Greek,  have  found  the  elementary  teaching  in  this  subject 
exceptionally  interesting.  Here  I  laid  myself  out,  so  to  speak, 
and  I  always  succeeded  in  enlisting  the  interest  of  the  pupils  with 
me.  It  frequently  happened  that  I  had  Latin  from  8  to  9  and 
Greek  from  9  to  10,  During  the  Latin  period  I  tried,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  to  do  my  best  to  enliven  the  study,  but  it  often 
happened  that  the  dry  material  prevented  me  realizing  the 
attitude  I  have  been  describing.  And  as  a  consequence  the 
pupils  not  infrequently  sat  ill-humored  throughout  the  Latin 
period.  But  this  condition  was  changed  completely  as  soon  as 
we  began  the  Greek  period.  It  seemed  to  transform  the  class. 
Each  member  of  the  class  was  anxious  to  write  a  sentence  on 
the  board,  every  one  paid  attention  and  was  ready  to  answer 
questions.  It  was  not  long  until  the  pupils  were  so  interested  as 
to  construct  short  Greek  sentences  in  class  from  the  vocabu- 
laries and  forms  previously  learned,  and  this  produced  genuine 
enthusiasm.  I  could  thus  see  what  even  mediocre  pupils  are 
capable  of  doing  when  their  powers  are  concentrated  and  in- 


Didactics  135 

tensified  by  interest.  I  was  frequently  astonished  at  the  length 
of  the  sentences  they  put  together,  at  their  making  use  of  every- 
thing they  had  previously  acquired,  and  their  care  that  the 
sentence  should  make  sense.  I  remember,  e.g.,  that  a  very 
ordinary  pupil,  after  about  three  months'  instruction,  formu- 
lated the  following  sentence  :  rr^v  /jlIv  arj86va  ov  ßkiirofxev,  ttjv  h\ 
<f>wvr]v  avTTj'i  d«:ouo/x,ev.  (We  do  not  hear  the  nightingale,  but 
we  hear  its  voice.)  Every  experienced  teacher  will  grant,  after 
a  little  reflection,  that  it  is  not  a  matter  of  small  consequence  for 
a  pupil  to  formulate  a  sentence  such  as  this,  in  which  he 
uses  the  fxlv  and  8e  correctly,  hits  upon  the  difficult  setting  of 
the  pronoun  and  constructs  it  into  an  intelligent  sentence.  To 
put  the  matter  briefly,  this  incitement  to  original  composition 
in  a  language  until  but  recently  entirely  strange  had  an  elec- 
trical effect  and  I  can  not  recommend  this  method  too  strongly. 
These  consecutive  periods  have  at  least  revealed  to  me  the 
contrasting  appearance  between  a  class  period  with  little  or  no 
interest  and  one  with  vital  interest.  It  is  upon  such  experiences 
as  these  that  my  conviction  rests,  that  the  awakening  of  inter- 
est is  our  most  important  pedagogic  principle. 

The  need  of  exercise,  as  observed  above,  is  easily  satisfied  in 
the  lower  grades.  Even  jolly  conjugation  and  declension  ap- 
proaches fun.  But, —  and  this  must  be  said  in  addition  —  the 
pleasure  which  proceeds  from  such  elementary  exercise  likewise 
soon  grows  dull.  There  results,  therefore,  for  the  teacher  the 
by  no  means  easy  task  of  so  arranging  his  instruction  as  to 
maintain  the  interest  of  the  class.  He  must  likewise  take  ac- 
count of  the  pupils'  previous  attainments  and  neither  deter  them 
by  excessive  requirements  nor  dull  and  weary  them  by  elemen- 
tary exercises.  This  is  however  by  no  means  an  easy  task.  But 
we  must  nevertheless  make  it  a  rule,  in  every  subject  and  at 
everj'  stage  of  advancement  to  discover  the  kind  of  instruction 
which  will  bring  out  the  spontaneous  thought  of  the  pupil  in  a 
pleasurable  manner.  According  to  my  experiences  the  error 
of  aiming  too  high  in  the  lower  grades  is  less  serious  than  in  aim- 
ing too  low  in  the  higher  grades. 

If,  e.  g.,  an  exceptionally  skillful  history  teacher  with  a 
class  in  constitutional  history  in  the  lower  grades,  where  the 
interest  of  the  pupils  rests  more  on  strong  personalities  and 
clear,  illustrative  capacities,  dwells  too  much  on  constitutional 


136  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

development,  he  will  certainly  be  but  little  understood  by  the 
pupils.  But  the  majority  of  them  will  nevertheless  have  the 
feeling  that  they  are  being  given  something  of  importance,  and, 
even  though  they  cannot  follow  completely,  they  will  not  re- 
main entirely  inactive,  but  make  an  effort  to  understand.  So 
also  a  well  trained  linguist,  who  permits  himself  to  wander 
into  comparative  philology  in  teaching  elementary  Greek,  will 
be  making  an  error  of  method,  but  nevertheless  inspire  the  inter- 
est of  the  majority  of  the  pupils. 

On  the  other  hand  it  is  the  death-blow  of  all  teaching  if  a 
philologist  or  germanist  in  the  advanced  classes  introduces  too 
much  grammar  and  meter  into  the  expositions  of  the  great 
poems,  if  he  requires  the  recital  of  tedious  passages  and  asks 
common-place  questions.  Grammatical  construction  and  meter 
are  exceedingly  important,  but  simply  as  means  to  the  under- 
standing of  the  meaning  and  beauty  of  the  poetry.  Here  it 
means  the  combining  of  all  knowledge  and  power,  in  order  to 
lift,  even  inspire  the  pupils  to  the  plane  of  poetry.  It  seems  to 
me  therefore  that  it  is  advisable  to  select  such  texts  for  the 
higher  classes  as  will  not  be  beyond  the  grasp  of  the  average 
pupil.  At  this  age  the  interest  of  the  pupils  will  not  be  suffi- 
ciently aroused  unless  the  questions  of  the  teacher  direct  their 
attention  to  facts  which  they  would  otherwise  have  missed.  But, 
if  it  is  anj^vise  possible,  wt  must  allow  the  pupils  to  discover 
these  facts  for  themselves.  The  teacher  cannot  always  avoid 
detailed  explanations  and  they  likewise  produce  good  results. 
But  I  would  warn  against  profuse  eulogizing  of  the  poet  or  his 
productions.  It  is  an  all  too  common  experience  that  it  is  but 
a  step  from  the  sublime  to  the  ridiculous,  and  our  modern 
youth  is  strongly  inclined  to  regard  enthusiastic  tirades  on  the 
beauties  of  classic  poetry  as  a  great  joke.  The  deepest  interest 
is  aroused  by  showing  the  pupils  the  rich  content  of  our  great 
classics  and  the  range  of  positive  information  and  penetrating 
analysis  required  to  thoroughly  understand  the  text.  When 
the  pupils,  under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher,  have  attained  a 
clear  understanding  of  a  difficult  passage  the  joy  of  achieve- 
ment is  reflected  back  upon  the  production  and  the  sense  of  aes- 
thetic appreciation  arises  spontaneously. 

The  practical  significance  of  our  pedagogic  principle  makes 
the  profound  and  vital  relation  of  interest  and  attention  of  vast 


I 


Didactics  137 

importance.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  as  everybody  knows,  the 
effect  of  teaching  depends  almost  entirely  on  the  success  of  se- 
curing the  pupils'  concentrated  attention.  The  majority  of 
teachers  regard  attention  as  the  pupils'  duty  and  hold  that  they 
have  a  right  to  and  must  require  it  of  the  pupils.  Psychologi- 
cally this  view  is  not  altogether  false.  It  is  beyond  question  that 
we  can  gradually  train  the  pupils  by  a  prolonged  volitional  effort 
to  concentrate  attention  upon  the  subject  matter  which  they 
are  studying.  This  capacity  grows  with  the  increasing  intel- 
lectual maturity  of  the  pupil  and  its  discipline  is  one  of  the  most 
important  problems  in  the  training  of  the  will.  We  shall  dis- 
cuss this  topic  in  the  next  chapter.  But  notwithstanding  this 
it  is  quite  erroneous  to  think  that  attention  is  exclusively  or  even 
chiefly  a  function  of  active  volition  and  that  the  capacity  for 
prolonged  concentration  is  a  native  possession  of  all  pupils  from 
the  start. 

From  the  standpoint  of  its  origin  attention  is  biologically  the 
m.ost  important  function  of  psychical  life.  We  concentrate  our 
organism  quite  unconsciously  upon  such  processes  of  our  environ- 
ment as  have  significance  for  the  preservation  of  life.  And  there 
is  likewise  a  kind  preparation  of  the  means  of  its  realization 
combined  with  this  concentration.  A  cat  watching  for  a  mouse 
is  the  objective  sj-mbol  of  attention.  The  ability  to  thus  con- 
centrate upon  the  anticipated  impression  is  deeply  imbedded 
in  our  centralized  organization  and  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant conditions  for  the  preservation  and  enrichment  of  life. 

The  human  intellect,  that  mighty  instrument  in  the  strug- 
gle for  existence,  in  the  course  of  time  develops  an  increasing 
variation  and  refinement.  Its  activity  is  serviceable  to  life 
and  for  this  reason,  just  as  everything  which  enhances  life,  it 
is  correlated  with  a  sense  of  pleasure.  And  we  have  seen  above 
that  interest  is  nothing  more  than  the  functional  pleasure  of  the 
intellect.  The  concentration  of  the  intellect  upon  the  object, 
which  furnishes  the  occasion  of  its  activity  proceeds  hand  in 
hand  with  this  joy-begetting  exercise.  But  this  simply  means 
that  interest  is  the  sole  cause  of  the  origin  of  attention.  We 
might  perhaps  put  it  even  better  thus ;  interest  and  attention 
are  simply  the  opposite  sides  of  one  and  the  same  process. 
That  is  to  say,  whoever  arouses  my  interest  has  at  the  same  time 
also  concentrated  my  attention.     Hence  the  concentration  of 


138  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

attention  does  not  even  require  any  conscious  volitional  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  With  the  enlistment  of  interest  at- 
tention follows  quite  spontaneously.  This  spontaneous  atten- 
tion persists  just  as  long  as  the  interest  is  maintained.  Who- 
ever therefore  wishes  to  hold  the  constant  attention  of  his  pupils 
must  aim  to  enlist  their  interest.  It  is  only  after  this  has  been 
effectively  practiced  for  a  number  of  years,  and  the  pupil's  in- 
tellect is  sufficiently  strengthened,  that  we  may  urge  them  to 
concentrate  their  attention  as  a  conscious  volitional  effort. 

But  even  then  it  is  inadvisable  to  base  instruction  wholly  on 
this  so-called  "  active  "  attention.  A  series  of  experiments  has 
shown  that  attention  which  results  from  intensive  volitional 
effort  is  an  intermittent  activity,  which  even  adults  are  unable 
to  continue  for  any  considerable  time.  This  intermittence 
characterizes  the  active  attention  of  the  pupils  to  a  much  greater 
degree.  Hence,  notwithstanding  the  desirability  and  necessity 
of  training  the  pupils  to  persistent  concentration,  quite  as 
much  so  as  to  regularity  in  work,  attention  is  nevertheless,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  more  certainly  secured  through  the  enlistment  of 
interest.  We  would  recommend  the  following  procedure  as 
the  best  in  the  practical  work  of  the  school.  Seek  constantly 
to  arouse  interest  and  you  will  at  the  same  time  secure  atten- 
tion. In  case  mind  wandering  or  weariness  should  arise  dur- 
ing the  course  of  the  class  period  it  is  possible  for  the  teacher, 
by  an  emphatic  admonition,  to  force  the  pupils  to  renewed 
physical  and  mental  energy  and  a  vigorous  effort  of  attention. 
But  the  effect  of  such  effort  usually  lasts  only  a  few  minutes. 
The  teacher  must  then  utilize  this  interval  to  arouse  interest 
again  and  thus  reproduce  the  correlated  attention. 

We  must  conclude  therefore,  that  as  a  rule  attention  and  in- 
terest combine  in  a  single  psychical  act.  A  complete  grasp  of 
this  fact  will  still  further  illuminate  and  impress  our  obligation 
to  arouse  interest.  If  our  pupils  therefore  become  indifferent 
and  inattentive,  we  must  first  of  all  hold  ourselves  responsible, 
not  them.  We  must  at  least  endeavor  by  the  constant  enlist- 
ment of  interest  so  to  increase  the  intellectual  powers  of  our 
pupils  as  to  enable  them  to  sustain  such  prolonged  concentration 
as  results  from  active  volitional  effort.  And  at  no  stage,  in  no 
subject  and  in  no  class  period  dare  we  neglect  the  enlistment  of 
interest  and  securing  the  pleasure  of  spontaneous  intellectual 


Didactics  1 39 

effort  on  the  part  of  our  pupils  and  to  increase  it  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. 

The  enlistment  of  interest  therefore  remains  our  first  and 
most  important  pedagogic  principle.  This  is  the  primary  condi- 
tion of  pedagogic  success.  However,  and  we  must  immediately 
add,  it  is  the  primary  but  not  the  only  one.  Interest  tends  to 
arouse  the  intellectual  powers  but  it  does  not  discipline  them. 
It  is  possible  to  proceed  upon  this  principle  so  exclusively  as 
even  to  endanger  the  final  result.  Permit  me  to  illustrate 
this  by  relating  a  personal  experience. 

In  the  winter  of  1884-85  —  I  was  then  a  gymnasial  teacher 
in  one  of  the  provincial  cities  of  Mähren  —  I  was  required  to 
give  the  elective  course  in  the  Bohemian  language.  There  were 
two  classes,  one  for  beginners  and  another  for  advanced  pupils. 
In  the  elementary  course  I  took  the  matter  very  seriously  and 
tried  to  do  what  I  could.  In  the  advanced  work,  in  which,  if  I 
recall  correctly,  I  had  three  pupils,  I  was  somew^hat  indifferent. 
I  frequently  took  occasion  to  discuss  general  questions  with  the 
pupils.  At  the  end  of  the  year  the  father  of  one  of  my 
pupils  in  the  advanced  class  remarked  to  me,  that  his  son  had 
frequently  spoken  of  my  course  in  Bohemian  and  expressed 
himself  thus :  "  The  class  periods  were  exceedingly  interesting, 
but  we  did  not  learn  anything."  I  have  constantly  kept  this 
incident  in  mind  whenever  my  individuality  as  a  teacher 
tempted  me  to  emphasize  onesidedly  or  exclusively  the  principle 
of  interest. 

The  class  periods  must  be  interesting,  this  is  the  first  and 
most  important  commandment,  but  something  must  also  be 
learned.  To  this  end  the  principle  of  interest  must  be  corre- 
lated with  a  second  principle  which  will  cooperate  with  the 
first.  Earlier  in  life  I  was  inclined  to  call  this  second  principle 
the  principle  of  constraint.  Every  practical  pedagogue  will 
admit  that  permanent  results  cannot  be  attained  without  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  constraint.  But  I  have  discovered  by  careful 
reflection  that  the  constraint  moment  is  still  not  the  most  es- 
sential. It  is  not  a  matter  of  very  great  importance  that  we  con- 
strain, but  far  more  to  what  end  we  constrain.  If  we  inquire 
into  what  we  are  instilling  into  our  pupils,  at  any  rate  what  we 
must  instill  by  means  of  constraint,  the  answer  will  run  as  fol- 
lows:    Systematic  work  and  its  correlated  sense  of  responsi- 


140  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

bility.  I  therefore  call  the  second  pedagogic  principle  that  must 
be  correlated  with  that  of  arousing  interest,  the  principle  of 
training  to  work.  We  shall  now  proceed  to  the  discussion  of 
the  significance  and  practical  application  of  this  second  prin- 
ciple. 

4.     The  Principle  of  Training  to  Work 

The  principle  of  interest  rests  upon  the  fact  that  the  pupils 
are  endowed  with  an  intellectual  functional  demand.  Satisfy- 
ing this  demand  in  accordance  with  the  stage  of  development  and 
thus  inspire  pleasure  in  mental  spontaneity  constitutes  the  task 
of  the  teacher  as  described  in  the  two  preceding  sections.  But 
our  pupils,  as  they  come  from  the  public  school  in  the  vast 
majority  of  cases  do  not  bring  with  them  the  training  to  work. 
The  conduct  of  the  school  must  be  so  arranged  that  all  of  the 
study  must  be  done  in  school.  As  a  matter  of  course  some  spe- 
cially zealous  and  gifted  teachers  will  succeed  in  securing  inde- 
pendent home  study  on  the  part  of  individual  pupils.  But 
these  are  exceptions  with  which  we  cannot  reckon.  Training  in 
sj^stematic  work  and  the  development  of  the  sense  of  responsi- 
bility to  do  so,  is  something  new.  Here  we  are  obliged  to  be- 
gin at  the  foundation  and  train  our  pupils  from  the  start  so 
that  they  will  not  only  experience  functional  pleasure  in  men- 
tal activity,  but  likewise  learn  to  regard  it  as  an  indispensable 
duty. 

Training  to  work  is  an  exceedingly  important  pedagogic  prin- 
ciple in  the  secondary  school  for  reasons  of  sequence:  First  of 
all  on  this  account,  namely,  that  training  in  systematic  work  is 
valuable  in  itself,  even  neglecting  what  is  to  be  accomplished  by 
the  work.  We  have  instilled  in  our  pupils  one  of  the  most 
valuable  things  in  life  when  we  have  trained  them  to  consider 
the  relation  of  their  work  to  the  future,  to  regard  this  work  as 
the  natural  course  of  events  and  to  shun  idle  indifference.  Work 
is  the  most  important  principle  of  morals  and  even  for  this 
reason  training  to  work  belongs  to  the  most  important  ethical 
task  of  the  secondary  school.  Experience  shows  that  the  pupils 
from  the  institutions  which  strictly  enforce  systematic  work 
are  far  more  rarely  idle  and  they  generally  complete  their 
studies  in  the  prescribed  time. 


I 


Didactics  141 

But  even  in  the  department  of  general  education  which  we 
have  described  as  scientific  discipline  training  to  work  in  ad- 
dition to  the  awakening  of  interest  is  likewise  indispensable. 
The  mental  activity  discharged  through  the  awakening  of  inter- 
est must  be  intensified  by  exercise  and  gradually  developed  to 
definite,  positive  achievements. 

In  the  lowest  classes,  as  previously  observed,  we  must  keep 
close  to  the  methods  of  the  public  school  and  do  the  greater  part 
of  the  work  in  the  school.  But  even  at  this  stage  we  should 
make  a  beginning  in  training  to  work.  We  should  assign  the 
pupils  a  certain  amount  of  work,  not  too  difficult,  to  be  done  at 
home,  and  keep  strict  account  of  the  work  done,  in  order  that  the 
pupils  come  to  see  that  they  are  now  assuming  the  responsibility 
for  their  achievements.  A  little  later  on  we  can  and  should 
increase  our  requirements  so  that  they  do  not  merely  mechani- 
cally repeat,  but  likewise  independently  apply  what  they  have 
acquired.  They  should  also  gradually  learn  to  deal  with  larger 
problems  and  be  held  responsible  for  their  solution.  It  is  a  good 
plan  in  the  higher  classes  to  allow  a  larger  amount  of  material 
to  accumulate  before  requiring  a  report.  The  pupils  should 
likewise  be  given  a  chance  to  write  essaj"s  on  themes  of  their 
own  choosing.  In  this  way  they  will  learn  how  to  study  with 
a  definite  end  in  view  and  the  method  of  gathering  materials. 

The  principle  of  training  to  work  must  be  applied  with  spe- 
cial vigor  in  the  branches  which  we  have  previously  contrasted 
with  the  merely  "  inspirational  "  as  "  disciplinary'."  In  this 
class  belong  on  the  one  hand  the  philological  subjects,  i.e.,  foreign 
and  native  languages,  and  on  the  other  hand  mathematics  and 
physics.  Here  training  to  work  should  even  be  fostered  during 
the  class  period.  As  a  matter  of  course  we  should  also  in 
these  subjects  seek  to  inspire  interest  as  much  as  possible  and 
stimulate  the  pupils  to  pleasurable  exercise.  And  we  show 
them  even  in  school  that  this  exercise  has  definite  ends  and  that 
we  expect  them  to  actually  appropriate  what  they  have  heard 
and  learned  by  practice.  In  mathematics,  e.g.,  the  teacher  must 
rigorously  require  all  his  pupils  to  follow  the  process  of  solution, 
and  he  will  accomplish  this  by  requiring  various  pupils  to  direct 
the  several  stages  of  the  operation.  So  likewise  frequently  in 
the  midst  of  an  experiment  in  physics  he  will  put  the  question  to 
the  pupils,  what  will  happen  next.     In  such  thought-experiments 


142  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

both  pedagogic  principles  are  effectively  applied  simultaneously. 
The  philologist  will  show  the  pupils  even  in  the  lower  classes 
that  the  forms  are  practiced  in  school  in  order  to  impress  them 
firmly,  and  that  they  must  eventually  become  permanent.  He 
will  endeavor  to  train  them  in  methodical  thought  and  in  thor- 
oughness even  in  the  interpretation  of  authors  and  thus  during 
the  class  period  not  only  inspire  but  likewise  discipline  the 
intellect. 

Our  principle  demands  however  that  the  pupils  work  in- 
tensively not  only  in  school,  but  that  they  prepare  for  the 
class  period  at  home  and  thus  train  themselves  to  the  per- 
formance of  a  duty,  assuming  the  responsibility  for  results  which 
rests  with  them. 

There  is  a  strong  tendency  at  present  to  reduce  the  home 
work  of  the  pupils  as  much  as  possible.  This  is  due  to  the 
desire  to  get  more  time  for  excursions  and  games  for  the  highly 
important  phj^sical  development.  This  is  quite  as  clearly  under- 
stood as  it  is  justified,  but  it  directly  contradicts  the  nature  of 
the  higher  school  if  the  ideal  of  didactics  is  conceived  as  con- 
fining all  the  mental  discipline  to  the  class  period.  The  purpose 
of  the  secondary  school  can  never  be  realized  without  training 
in  independent  work  which  carries  with  it  the  sense  of  responsi- 
bility. Our  pupils  must  become  conscious  of  the  fact,  that  the 
knowledge  and  power  (Wissen  und  Können)  imparted  to  them 
in  school  must  be  made  their  permanent  possession  through  their 
own  effort.  Even  more  than  this  should  be  accomplished.  The 
teacher  should  stimulate  the  pupils  to  organize  for  independent 
cooperative  work  on  their  own  initiative.  Colin  A.  Scott,  in 
his  excellent  book  on  Social  Education  (Boston,  1 909) ,  has  given 
a  number  of  valuable  suggestions  on  this  point  for  the  American 
public  schools  which  could  and  should  be  introduced  into  our 
higher  schools  with  the  necessary  modifications. 

But  this  principle  should  not  be  overworked.  We  dare  not 
press  our  requirements  to  the  limit  of  the  ability  of  our  pupils. 
We  must  see  to  it  that  they  have  sufficient  time  for  recreation, 
time  in  which  they  may  at  least  pursue  occupations  of  their 
own  choosing.  These  favorite  occupations  frequently  reveal 
the  individuality  of  the  pupil,  here  peculiar  gifts  occasionally 
come  to  the  surface,  which  may  be  of  decisive  importance  in 
the  choice  of  vocation.     We  must  regard  the  powers  of  our 


Didactics  143 

pupils  as  a  precious  possession  which  has  been  entrusted  to  our 
nurture.  The  state  has  committed  to  us  the  administration  of 
its  most  valuable  working  capital.  The  value  of  this  capital 
will  increase  if  we  give  the  powers  of  our  pupils  opportunity 
to  exercise  moderately  in  productive  effort.  Excessive  demands 
on  these  youthfully  tender  capacities  however  produce  the  sad 
result  of  prematurely  consuming  and  shrivelling  up  this  wealth 
that  belongs  to  the  future. 

The  danger  of  overburdening,  which  doubtless  exists,  could 
most  readily  be  avoided  by  arranging  the  program  of  studies 
as  suggested  above.  The  principle  of  interest  would  be  used 
chiefly  in  the  "  inspirational  "  subjects,  whilst  both  pedagogic 
principles  would  cooperate  in  the  "  disciplinary  "  subjects.  This 
cooperation  is  by  no  means  difficult  to  realize.  As  the  pleasure 
in  intellectual  exercise  develops  through  the  awakening  of  inter- 
est the  requirements  involved  in  the  solution  of  a  definite 
problem  meet  with  far  less  resistance.  On  the  contrary.  The 
intensified  functional  demand  immediately  reaches  out  after 
concrete,  clearly  definite  opportunity  to  do  something.  If  the 
teacher  understands  how  to  give  direction  and  purpose  to  the 
awakened  desire  for  exercise,  to  assign  a  task  which  is  neither 
too  easy  nor  yet  too  difficult,  he  will  succeed  in  developing  the 
creative  energy  of  interest  into  the  demand  for  work  and  by 
training  raise  it  to  a  second  nature. 

The  principle  of  work  has  hitherto  been  dominant  in  the  con- 
duct of  secondary  instruction.  In  fact  there  have  been  times 
when  it  has  been  thought  that  the  learning  process  should  be 
made  as  difficult  as  possible  and  that  the  pupils  should  be  pre- 
pared for  the  difficult  problems  of  life  by  strict  discipline  even 
by  unrelenting  severity.  In  reply  to  this  I  would  once  more 
call  attention  to  the  frequently  quoted  passage  of  St.  Augustine: 
Plus  valet  in  discendo  libera  curiositas  quam  meticulosa  ne- 
cessitas.  In  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  spontaneous  interest 
accomplishes  more  than  fear-inspired  coercion.  The  principle 
of  work  which  must  be  intimately  associated  with  interest  how- 
ever cannot  quite  be  carried  through  without  coercion,  but  this 
necessitas  does  not  on  that  account  have  to  be  meticulosa.  It 
is  far  better  to  exercise  the  coercion  by  a  consistent  non-indul- 
gence than  by  the  intimidations  of  examination  and  discipline. 
In  every  class  period  we  must  furthermore  keep  in  mind  the 


144  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

total  aim  of  the  secondary  school  and  be  conscious  of  the  fact 
that  we  have  not  merely  nor  even  chiefly  to  impart  facts,  but  to 
develop  intellectual  independence  and  moral  responsibility. 

5.     The  Authority  of  the  Teacher 

The  concept  of  authority  has  hitherto  been  elaborated  chiefly 
by  theologians  and  moralists,  and  more  recently  also  by  sociolo- 
gists. I  have  been  investigating  this  problem  for  some  time  and 
several  years  ago  promised  my  students  a  monograph  on  author- 
ity. The  following  suggestions  may  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of 
abstract  of  that  promise.  My  investigations,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  have  not  as  yet  enabled  me  to  attain  a  satisfactory  theory 
in  all  its  phases.  However  the  most  important  aspects  have 
become  sufficiently  clear  to  permit  the  hope  of  having  penetrated 
into  the  matter  somewhat  more  profoundly  and  to  have  at- 
tained results  of  no  slight  importance  to  practical  pedagogics. 

First  of  all  this  one  fact  must  be  laid  down  as  fundamental, 
namely,  that  authority  is  a  spiritual  force.  Just  as  in  the  case 
of  every  other  psychical  factor,  authority  can  of  course  be  ex- 
ercised onl}^  through  physical  means,  as  e.g.,  through  looks,  ver- 
bal admonitions,  and  written  rules.  But  the  physical  and 
physiological  is  only  the  instrument,  never  the  essence.  The 
same  words  and  gestures  which,  when  used  with  authority  pro- 
duce swift  and  profound  results,  are  utterly  ineffective  when 
lacking  the  psychical  element  which  constitutes  the  very  essence 
of  authority.  This  fact  in  itself  is  of  profound  importance 
to  us  teachers.  It  shows  that  we  can  acquire  authority  by 
knowledge  and  especially  by  consistent,  effective  action  even 
if  we  are  not  naturally  endowed  with  the  physical  attributes 
of  authority.  As  a  matter  of  fact  I  have  known  colleagues  who 
were  small  and  insignificant  in  appearance  who  nevertheless 
governed  their  classes  splendidly,  had  excellent  discipline  and 
got  their  pupils  to  work.  On  the  other  hand  I  recall  others  of 
imposing  stature,  a  strong  voice,  in  brief  possessing  every  ex- 
ternal characteristic  which  ordinarily  inspires  the  pupils'  respect, 
but  were  nevertheless  a  veritable  joke  to  the  young  men.  Au- 
thority, therefore,  is  based  on  spirit  and  it  can  effect  results  from 
that  source  alone. 

The  sphere  in  which  authority  produces  its  profoundest  as 


Didactics  145 

well  as  its  widest  results  is  that  of  the  religious  life.  God, 
Christ,  the  Church,  the  Holy  Scriptures,  all  exercise  a  pro- 
found spiritual  influence  upon  believers  and  determine  their 
thoughts,  feelings  and  desires.  By  the  term  "  believers  "  we 
mean  all  who  feel  themselves  subject  to  religious  authority. 
And  since  we  have  no  term  which  is  capable  of  describing  this 
relation  to  authority  with  equal  brevity  and  clearness,  I  shall 
take  the  liberty  to  speak  of  believers  even  where  religion  is  not 
under  consideration,  and  apply  the  term  to  all  who  are  under 
the  influence  of  authority  in  any  form  whatsoever.  And  I 
now  raise  the  question ;  How  shall  we  describe  the  operation  of 
authority  upon  believers  in  general? 

We  can  draw  the  answer  to  this  question  with  considerable 
certitude  from  the  extensive  investigations  made  during  the 
last  decades  of  last  centurj'  into  the  phenomena  of  hypnotism 
and  suggestion  discovered  by  the  Englishman  Braid.  It  is  a 
well  known  fact  that  individuals  are  not  infrequently  put  into 
a  state  of  artificial  sleep  (hypnosis)  while  unusually  open  to 
the  suggestions  of  the  hypnotist.  They  regard  every  proposi- 
tion of  the  hypnotist, —  even  the  most  absurd  —  as  true  and 
blindly  follow  his  instructions.  The  hypnotised  moreover  re- 
main under  the  influence  of  the  hypnotist  even  after  they  awaken. 
For  weeks,  and  even  months  afterwards  they  follow  the  com- 
mands given  during  hypnosis  for  the  future.  Any  one  in- 
terested in  the  details  of  these  processes  will  find  abundant 
material  in  Moll's  book  on  Hypnotism.  The  psychological 
and  physiological  interpretation  of  these  facts  may  be  found  in 
James'  Principles  of  Psychology   (H.  593-614). 

When  the  facts  of  hypnosis  became  known  during  the  seven- 
ties and  eighties  of  last  century  and  the  results  of  Charcot  and 
Bernheim  convinced  the  public  that  it  is  not  a  matter  of  spirit- 
istic frauds,  but  scientific  discoveries,  the  interest  of  psycholo- 
gists was  at  once  directed  to  the  hypnotic  state.  They  enter- 
tained the  hope  that  experiments  would  reveal  hitherto  un- 
known psychical  powers  and  also  expected  new  information  in 
ph3'siology.  Hypnosis  has  indeed  illumined  many  a  profound 
psj'chical  problem,  especially  concerning  the  nature  of  volitional 
processes,  and  furnished  physiolog}'  valuable  information  con- 
cerning the  nature  and  direction  of  centrally  aroused  stimuli. 
But  the  most  important  result  of  this  whole  investigation  is  not 


146  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

hypnosis,  but  the  exact  knowledge  of  the  intimately  related 
fact  of  suggestion.  This  involves  a  peculiar  sort  of  influence 
exercised  by  one  man  upon  another,  the  essence  of  w^hich 
consists  in  the  fact  that  everything  which  proceeds  from  the 
suggestor  exerts  a  peculiarly  strong  influence  on  the  sense  per- 
ception, the  ideation,  judgment,  feeling  and  desire  of  the  sub- 
ject of  the  suggestion,  and  that  all  influences  from  other  sources, 
all  counter  reasons  and  counter  motives  are  either  wholly  ob- 
literated or  at  least  essentially  weakened. 

In  hypnosis  both  the  suggestibility  of  the  hypnotic  and  the 
power  of  the  suggestor  come  so  clearly  and  forcefully  into  the 
foreground  that  this  form  of  influence  of  one  individual  upon 
another  must  impress  every  observer.  Hypnosis  differs  from 
ordinary  sleep,  as  Lipps  has  strikingly  observed,  "  by  the  firm 
and  limited  wakeful  island  within  the  surrounding  more  or  less 
sleeping  soul.  The  wakeful  island  is  described  by  the  person- 
ality of  the  hypnotist.  It  is  the  '  abode  '  or  province  in  the 
soul  of  the  hypnotic,  where  this  personality  manifests  itself,  the 
seat  of  the  clangcolor  and  pitch  of  his  voice."  The  power  of 
the  hypnotist  is  frequently  frightfully  great.  He  may  call  forth 
at  will,  in  the  consciousness  of  the  hypnotic,  hallucinations  and 
illusions  of  such  strength  as  even  to  produce  physiological 
modifications.  It  has  happened,  for  instance,  that  the  hyp- 
notist has  remarked  to  the  hypnotic  that  the  iron  with  which 
he  is  now  touching  his  hand  is  red  hot.  The  hypnotic  drew 
himself  together  with  a  painful  shudder  at  the  contact  and  small 
fire-blisters  formed  in  the  skin  at  the  point  of  contact.  The 
hypnotic  believes  the  hypnotist  in  everjthing  and  even  fre- 
quently performs  his  commands  after  the  spell  has  passed  off. 
But  notwithstanding  this  the  individuality  of  the  hypnotic  is  not 
entirely  destroyed.  If  the  counter  reasons  against  the  suggested 
judgment  or  the  counter  motives  against  the  suggested  commands 
are  very  strong,  the  hypnotic  struggles  against  them  after 
awaking  and  his  own  reason  and  will  frequently  gain  the  mas- 
tery. But  the  trend  of  his  thought,  feeling  and  will  is  never- 
theless  tremendously   afifected. 

The  experiments  in  hypnotism  directed  attention  to  suggesti- 
bility on  the  one  hand,  to  man's  power  of  suggestion  on  the 
other.  Observation  thus  intensified  soon  took  note  that  these 
facts  are  by  no  means  confined  to  hypnosis.     We  are  likewise 


1 


Didactics  147 

under  the  influence  of  suggestion  during  our  waking  hours. 
Not  only  do  strong  personalities,  but  traditional  opinions,  es- 
tablished customs  and  usages,  favorite  books,  etc.,  affect  us  in  a 
way  similar  to  the  observed  facts  of  hypnosis,  differing  only  in 
degree.  Suggestion  is  a  universal  form  of  interaction  between 
man  and  man.  The  effect  of  suggestion  everj^where  reveals  the 
twofold  characteristic  of  contraction  and  of  intensification. 
Certain  stimuli  are  intensified  and  others  are  weakened.  But 
whilst  in  hypnosis  the  effect  on  the  sphere  of  physical  sensitivity 
is  the  most  striking,  in  the  case  of  wakeful  suggestion  the  effect 
on  the  secondary  and  tertiary  images  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant. It  is  our  judgment,  our  feelings  and  our  volitional 
choices  that  are  influenced  by  suggestion  more  frequently  and 
more  profoundly  than  we  are  aware.  The  profound  influence 
of  favorite  popular  orators  upon  excited  crowds,  the  alluring 
and  impelling  force  of  certain  ideas  and  catch  words,  the  tre- 
mendous impression  of  the  founders  of  religions  upon  their 
first  adherents,  all  of  these  things  rest  on  suggestion  and  sug- 
gestibility. 

I  haven't  any  doubt  but  that  the  ps_vchical  influence  of  au- 
thority on  believers  is  to  be  conceived  as  a  kind  of  suggestion  and 
that  this  theory  will  give  the  teacher  a  decided  advantage. 
The  teacher  who  speaks  with  authority  penetrates  into  the 
depths  of  the  minds  of  his  pupils  with  his  whole  personality,  of 
which  his  subject  constitutes  a  vital  part,  and  arouses  the  "  wake- 
ful island  "  mentioned  above.  The  pupils  are  in  an  attitude  of 
receptiveness  for  everything  which  the  teacher  has  to  say  that 
bears  on  the  subject,  and  the  predisposition  to  other  ideas  and 
judgments  is  greatly  diminished.  This  accounts  for  the  fact 
that  students  in  the  Greek  class  seem  so  remarkably  unready 
with  their  knowledge  of  geography,  mathematics  and  history. 
These  are  beyond  the  range  of  the  "  wakeful  island."  Author- 
ity exercised  in  this  way  renders  it  an  easy  matter  for  the  teacher 
to  arouse  the  interest  of  the  pupils,  enlist  their  own  efforts  and 
hold  their  attention.  It  follows  therefore  that  the  possession 
of  authorit}^  reduces  the  difficulty  of  teaching  very  materially. 
But  this  is  a  matter  so  palpably  manifest  as  to  be  meaningless. 
What  we  are  anxious  to  know  is  quite  another  matter.  We 
need  to  investigate  more  closely  the  suggestive  effects  of  au- 
thority, we  must  be  able  to  distinguish  its  various  forms,  so  as 


148  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

to  establish  definite  criteria  by  which  the  teacher  will  be  able  to 
judge  whether  he  still  possesses  authority  or  whether  he  has 
lost  it.  And  we  must  likewise  never  forget  that  our  authority 
is  a  means  and  not  an  end  in  itself.  In  addition  to  the  effects 
and  criteria  of  authority  we  must  likewise  discover  its  limits  and 
have  care  to  observe  them. 

The  psychical  effects  of  authority  are  most  easily  and  most 
simply  classified  after  the  analogy  of  the  three  fundamental 
functions  of  consciousness,  described  by  the  words;  thought, 
feeling,  and  volition.  And  we  know  moreover,  that  these 
fundamental  functions  are  never  isolated  in  actual  psychical  life, 
but,  due  to  our  unitary  and  centralized  organization,  constantly 
work  together.  But,  owing  to  a  division  of  labor,  a  profound 
psychical  differentiation  has  nevertheless  taken  place  during 
the  course  of  the  development  of  civilization,  which  has  not 
only  resulted  in  a  diversification,  but  likewise  in  a  narrowing 
of  functions.  This  fact  becomes  clear  as  soon  as  we  note  the 
effect  of  authority.  Under  ordinary  conditions  we  are  practi- 
cally never  merely  subject  to  the  influence  of  but  a  single  author- 
ity. We  are  generally  affected  by  a  number  of  different  author- 
ities. No  single  one  of  them  controls  us  completely.  One 
appeals  more  especially  to  our  intellect  and  then  even  frequently 
to  a  specific  field  rather  than  the  intellect  as  a  whole,  whilst 
other  authorities  affect  our  emotions  or  volitions.  Thus,  e.g.,  a 
scholar,  whom  we  regard  as  an  authority  in  his  department, 
readily  gains  our  acquiescence  without  opposition,  whilst  he 
is  not  even  considered  as  furnishing  a  standard  for  our  will. 
On  the  other  hand  parents  who  have  not  had  the  advantages 
of  a  scientific  training,  frequently  retain  their  authority  over 
their  children  for  a  long  time,  and  even  when  the  latter  have 
far  surpassed  the  parents  in  knowledge  and  training.  In  such 
cases  authority  has  no  effect  whatever  on  the  intellect,  but 
merely  inspires  the  feelings  and  will  of  the  believers.  We  see 
therefore  that  the  influence  of  authority  is  not  only  to  be  classi- 
fied theoretically  according  to  the  various  fundamental  functions 
of  the  mind,  but  that  it  is  also  actually  differentiated  in  prac- 
tical life,  that  it  affects  only  the  one  or  the  other  fundamental 
functions  and  fails  to  affect  the  remaining  psychical  activities. 
Experience  therefore  justifies  us  in  regarding  this  classification 
as  established  and  to  investigate  the  mode  of  its  development  in 


Didactics  149 

connection  with  the  various  mental  powers  separately. 

Authority  reveals  its  influence  on  the  intellect  by  the  fact 
that  we  accept  as  true  without  further  proof  the  judgments 
which  proceed  from  the  accepted  authority.  As  a  matter  of 
fact  we  are  even  inclined  to  defend  such  judgments  against  op- 
position and  even  the  more  vigorously  in  proportion  to  the  emi- 
nence of  the  authority.  We  measure  the  greatness  and  power 
of  authority  by  the  intensity  and  stability  of  our  faith.  We 
shall  call  this  kind  of  persuasion  intellectual  authority.  Re- 
ligion furnishes  the  largest  number  and  the  most  suggestive 
examples  of  the  eifect  of  intellectual  authority.  The  believer 
accepts  the  dogmas  and  promises,  the  traditions  and  interpre- 
tations of  his  church  and  regards  them  true  without  specific 
evidence.  In  case  of  even  the  slightest  doubt,  the  church  inevi- 
tably suffers  a  shock.  The  church,  particularly  the  Roman 
Catholic,  is  well  aware  of  this  and  accordingly  lays  great  stress 
on  purity  of  faith.  Teachers  regard  this  matter  somewhat 
differently.  We  shall  therefore  have  occasion  farther  on  to 
investigate  the  significance  for  instruction  involved  in  the  in- 
tellectual authority  of  the  teacher,  and  more  particularly  to 
indicate  its  natural  limits. 

The  effect  of  authority  on  feeling  is  shown  in  the  fact  that 
every  approval  or  even  commendation  of  my  position  by  an  au- 
thority produces  a  sense  of  exaltation  and  arouses  intense, 
beneficent  feelings  of  pleasure  within  me.  On  the  other  hand 
every  criticism,  every  blame  coming  from  the  side  of  authority 
is  likely  to  produce  a  sense  of  self-depreciation  and  give  rise 
to  a  depressed  state  of  emotion  together  with  an  intense  dis- 
pleasure within  me.  This  fact  is  a  ver}^  important  matter  for 
us  teachers  as  a  criterion.  The  moment  we  find  that  our 
pupils  are  indifferent  to  our  praise  or  our  blame,  we  may  be 
sure  it  is  a  serious  indication  of  waning  authority  on  our  part. 

Authority  affects  the  will  in  a  way  that  secures  obedience  to 
its  commands  without  resistance.  In  case  the  command  involves 
something  which  is  downright  unpleasant,  it  may  of  course 
give  rise  to  a  struggle  in  the  mind  of  the  subject,  but,  in  case 
the  authority  is  of  sufficient  force,  it  will  last  but  for  a  short 
time.  As  a  matter  of  fact  obedience  may  also  be  secured  by 
brute  force  and  awe  inspiring  strictness.  The  obedience  of  the 
pupils  is  therefore  even  still  no  sure  criterion  of  authority.     Dis- 


ISO  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

obedience  however  is  a  sure  sign  that  the  teacher's  authority  is 
gone. 

The  effects  of  authority  on  feeling  and  will  are  vitally  cor- 
related. Any  praise  and  blame  that  discharges  intense  feelings 
of  pleasure,  or  displeasure  as  the  case  may  be,  will  generally 
produce  a  ready  and  unobstructed  obedience.  But  on  the  other 
hand  there  is  a  vast  difference  between  this  effect  on  sentiment 
and  will  and  the  influence  of  intellectual  authority  on  our  judg- 
ments, a  relative  —  even  if  in  fact  not  absolute  —  independ- 
ence so  to  speak.  We  should  therefore  endeavor  to  formulate 
a  distinctive  term  with  which  to  describe  the  influence  of  au- 
thority on  feeling  and  will.  I  suggest  the  term  "  moral  au- 
thority," because  of  the  fact  that  this  kind  of  influence  seems  to 
be  peculiarly  active  in  moral  development. 

We  shall  now  have  to  investigate  how  these  two  kinds  of  au- 
thority operate  in  the  work  of  the  school  and  how  they  should 
operate. 

So  far  as  pertains  to  intellectual  authority,  experience  shows, 
that,  among  the  lower  grades  we  have  this  authority  as  a  fore- 
gone conclusion.  The  pupils  have  become  accustomed,  in  the 
public  schools,  to  regard  the  teacher  as  omniscient  and  conse- 
quently expect  even  more  of  the  teachers  of  the  more  advanced 
school,  who  are  called  "  Professors."  That  is  to  say,  when  we 
enter  the  class  room  to  give  our  first  lessons  we  are  the  abso- 
lute intellectual  authority  for  all,  or  at  least  by  far  the  great- 
est majority,  of  the  pupils  in  the  lower  grades.  It  never  occurs 
to  any  of  the  pupils  to  doubt  the  truth  of  any  of  our  judgments. 
That  is  to  say,  we  are  not  obliged  to  acquire  our  intellectual 
authority  at  this  stage.  We  simply  need  to  avoid  the  things 
which  would  be  likely  to  undermine  our  authority.  And  this 
demands  nothing  more  than  careful  preparation  and  rigid  self- 
discipline. 

In  the  lower  grades  however  the  intellectual  authority  of 
the  teacher  is  an  indispensable  prerequisite  to  effective  teaching. 
At  this  stage  the  teacher,  rather  than  the  text  book,  should 
be  the  first  and  direct  source  of  instruction.  We  write  the 
paradigms  on  the  blackboard,  we  develop  and  formulate  the 
rules,  we  demonstrate  with  the  globe  and  the  objects  of  nature 
study  and  tell  the  facts  of  history.  We  pronounce  the  first 
words  of  a  foreign  language  for  our  pupils,  from  our  lips  they 


Didactics  151 

learn  pronunciation  and  accent.  The  pupil  must  regard  what 
we  say  as  almost  sacred.  There  must  be  no  occasion  for  criti- 
cism or  doubt.  We  must  be  absolutely  certain  of  our  knowledge 
in  our  own  minds  and  give  evidence  of  it  in  our  work.  PFe  must 
be  and  appear  as  persons  who  know. 

We  must  therefore  never  waver,  never  make  mistakes.  Un- 
der no  circumstances  dare  it  come  to  pass  that  we  must  correct 
a  statement  previously  made  or  even  take  it  back. 

This  absolutely  indispensable  certitude  is  not  difficult  to  at- 
tain on  account  of  the  elementary  nature  of  the  subject-matter 
of  instruction  at  this  stage.  But  just  for  this  very  reason  we 
are  frequently  inclined  to  think  that  intensive  preparation  is 
unnecessary'.  Hence  we  often  neglect  familiarizing  ourselves 
with  the  content  and  language  of  the  text  books  from  which 
the  pupils  must  reviev.'  what  they  have  learned  from  us.  We 
permit  ourselves  slight  digressions  which  may  as  matter  of 
fact  be  unimportant  or  irrelevant,  but  are  nevertheless  likel}'' 
to  confuse  the  pupils,  who  adhere  closely  to  the  letter  of  the 
text.  This  results  in  perplexity  as  to  whether  they  should 
follow  us  or  the  book.  This  is  the  reason  why  I  regard  it  so 
highly  important  that  we  clearly  grasp  the  significance  of  intel- 
lectual authority  at  this  stage.  Intellectual  authority  must  here 
be  nothing  short  of  absolute,  so  that  the  fundamental  elements 
in  all  subjects,  but  especially  in  language  work  and  mathematics, 
become  the  fixed  and  abiding  acquisition  of  the  pupils. 

The  matter  assumes  a  dilferent  aspect  when  the  pupils  pass 
from  the  first  year  into  the  middle  and  thence  advance  to  the 
highest  class.  Here  the  intellectual  authority  of  the  teacher, 
which  was  an  indispensable  prerequisite  in  the  first  year,  be- 
comes a  problem.  The  task  of  the  secondary  school  more- 
over consists  pre-eminently,  as  we  have  repeatedly  observed, 
in  training  the  pupils  to  intellectual  independence.  How  is  it 
possible  to  do  this  therefore,  if  the  intellectual  authority  of  the 
teacher  is  always  to  remain  absolute  and  unquestioned?  Here 
we  are  again  confronted  with  another  difficult  synthesis,  of 
which  the  secondary  teacher  must  fulfill  so  many.  He  must 
create  the  possibility.  The  intellectual  authority  of  the  teacher 
must  be  so  adjusted  and  developed  as  not  to  suppress  the  indi- 
viduality of  the  pupils,  but  rather  encourage  it.  This  problem 
has  never  been  clearly  elaborated  in  pedagogical  circles,  at  least 


152  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

not  to  my  knowledge.  The  intellectual  authority  of  the  teacher 
is  consequently  often  expanded  to  cover  too  much,  requiring  of 
the  pupils  of  the  higher  classes  a  "  jurare  in  verba  magistri  " 
(to  swear  by  their  teacher  literally),  which  suppresses  indi- 
vidual development,  is  frequently  regarded  by  the  pupils  as  a 
burdensome  requirement  resulting  in  hostility  towards  educa- 
tion. Not  a  few  teachers  fear  that  their  dignity  will  suffer  if 
they  do  not  decide  absolutely  and  finally  concerning  the  inter- 
pretation of  a  philological  text,  or  the  only  correct  method  of 
solving  a  mathematical  problem,  or  the  reason  for  the  failure 
of  an  experiment  in  physics.  Such  teachers  not  infrequently 
regard  a  criticism  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  as  deserving  disci- 
pline, conduct  that  must  be  vigorously  suppressed. 

Such  procedure,  which  unfortunately  is  not  infrequent,  must 
be  regarded  as  a  serious  pedagogical  blunder.  Such  teachers, 
due  to  a  lack  of  psychological  training,  fail  to  see  that  it  is 
utterly  impossible  to  attain  the  end  they  are  striving  for  by  such 
methods.  Authoritatively  decreed  conclusions  and  the  suppres- 
sion of  all  criticism  by  brute  force  may  bring  it  to  pass  that 
the  pupils  will  keep  quiet,  conform  outwardly  and  at  least  not 
interpose  any  objections.  But  the  indignation  at  the  supposed 
injustice  may  easily  result  in  such  an  accumulation  of  resentment 
in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  as  frequently  leads  to  surprising  and 
most  serious  eruptions.  It  is  even  worse  if  pupils,  through  our 
treatment  of  all  their  individual  judgments  as  out  of  place,  lose 
all  interest  in  school  or  in  several  of  the  subjects  of  the  course 
of  study,  if  they  remain  stolid  and  indifferent  in  school  and 
direct  the  impulse  towards  the  exercise  of  the  functions  of  indi- 
viduality to  matters  entirely  outside  the  school.  The  school  has 
then  lost  all  influence  in  the  shaping,  forming  and  directing  of 
the  youthful  mind.  The  teacher  has  therefore,  by  his  dogmatic 
conclusions,  not  enhanced  his  own  dignit^^  but  most  seriously 
injured  it. 

If,  therefore,  we  are  not  to  lose  sight  of  our  central  purpose, 
training  to  intellectual  independence  by  means  of  scientific 
discipline,  we  must  become  clearly  aware  that  our  intellectual 
authority  which  must  be  absolute  and  unqualified  in  the  first 
year  will  have  to  be  transformed  with  the  increasing  maturity 
of  the  pupil.  The  sense  in  which  this  transformation  must  be 
made  will  at  once  be  clear  if  we  reflect  on  the  way  in  which  we 


Didactics  153 

acquire  our  scientific  education  and  from  what  sources  we  draw 
our  information.  It  is  at  once  evident  that,  by  the  method  of 
instruction  pursued  during  the  middle  and  last  years,  our  pupils 
themselves  have  access  to  many  of  these  sources.  The  pupils 
gradually  learn  to  draw  from  the  same  sources  that  we  do. 
And  hence  an  authority  slowly  arises  to  which  both  teacher  and 
pupils  readily  yield  adherence  in  similar  fashion.  This  author- 
ity is  nothing  less  than  the  authority  of  science  itself.  And  as 
we  gradually  permit  our  personal  authority  to  pass  over  into 
the  impersonal  authority  of  science  we  are  in  position  to  train 
our  pupils  with  all  the  energy  and  tact  at  our  command  to 
independent  investigation  without  prejudice  to  our  dignity. 
We  shall  endeavor  to  illustrate  this  by  several  examples. 

If  we  do  not  know  the  meaning  of  a  Greek  word  we  look  it , 
up  in  the  lexicon.  But  this  is  exactly  what  the  pupils  likewise 
do  and  we  at  once  observe  that  the  lexicon  constitutes  a  com- 
mon authority  for  both  teacher  and  pupil.  The  teacher  may 
have  a  larger  lexicon,  and  by  the  fact  of  his  wider  reading  he  is 
certainly  in  position  to  use  the  lexicon  to  greater  advantage, 
but  in  the  final  analysis  he  depends  on  the  lexicon  in  precisely 
the  same  way  as  the  pupil  does.  So  likewise  the  tables  of 
logarithms  are  final  standards  for  teacher  and  pupil  alike. 
The  historian  draws  his  information  concerning  events  either 
directly  from  the  sources  or  from  approved  treatises.  But  these 
treatises  are  likewise  at  the  disposal  of  the  pupils  of  the  higher 
classes,  especially  in  the  larger  cities.  If  we  wish  to  train 
our  pupils  to  independence,  therefore,  we  must  direct  them  in 
the  middle  and  especially  in  the  highest  class  to  make  liberal 
use  of  these  scientific  helps  and  to  form  their  own  conclusions. 
It  will  sometimes  happen  that  a  pupil  will  arrive  at  a  conclusion 
which  disagrees  with  that  of  the  teacher.  He  must  then  in- 
variabl}'  be  permitted  to  state  his  position  in  the  usual  form  and 
give  his  reasons  for  it.  The  teacher  must  carefully  examine 
this  view  and  either  show  that  in  this  case  this  interpretation 
is  likewise  possible,  or  indicate  the  reasons  why  the  pupil's 
conclusion  is  invalid.  He  will  thus  have  opportunity  to  show 
that  notvvithstanding  the  fact  that  he  is  no  longer  an  absolute 
authority,  he  still  possesses  a  certain  advantage  in  the  form  of 
knowledge  of  facts  and  the  use  of  scientific  instruments.  This 
advantage  must  be  clearly  evident.     Otherwise  the  teacher  will 


154  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

lose  respect.  After  the  pupils  are  convinced  that  their  teacher 
is  actually  well-informed  and  is  master  of  the  methods  and  in- 
struments of  his  science,  it  will  make  nothing  but  the  very  best 
impression  if  he  should  some  time  have  occasion  to  show  that 
the  view  of  a  pupil  which  differs  from  his  own  is  likewise  pos- 
sible, or  even  to  give  it  the  preference.  In  this  way  he  furnishes 
an  example  of  open-mindedness  which  constitutes  the  very  best 
and  purest  evidence  of  genuine  scientific  method. 

I  once  had  a  pupil,  in  the  two  higher  classes  in  which  I  taught 
Greek,  who  was  intensely  interested  in  philology  and  studiously 
devoted  himself  to  it.  He  procured  critical  editions  of  the 
authors  we  were  reading  in  class  and  read  scientific  treatises, 
e.g.,  Lehr's  Aristarchus.  He  used  to  bring  a  critical  edition 
of  Sophocles  along  to  class  and  consequently  knew  the  various 
readings  very  well.  It  happened  several  times  that  the  text 
used  in  the  school  edition  could  not  be  interpreted  satisfactorily. 
I  asked  this  pupil  quite  casually  what  the  traditions  had  to  say 
on  the  point  at  issue  and  permitted  him  to  give  his  opinion  of 
the  passage.  It  frequently  happened  that  the  tradition  was 
simpler  and  more  consistent  than  the  conjecture  adopted  by  the 
editor  of  the  school  edition.  The  interpretation  thus  simply 
became  more  interesting.  There  wasn't  the  slightest  occasion 
for  any  indecorum.  I  kept  constant  control  of  the  discussion 
and  my  dignity  did  not  suffer  in  the  least.  Several  colleagues 
however  frequently  complained  of  the  presumption  and  impu- 
dence of  this  same  pupil,  because  they  seemed  to  think  that 
such  a  high  degree  of  independence  on  the  part  of  a  pupil  cast 
reflection  on  the  intellectual  authority  of  the  teacher. 

A  few  years  after  I  began  teaching  —  I  had  a  position  in  a 
provincial-gymnasium  at  that  time  —  the  Inspector  gave  me 
charge  of  the  instruction  in  philosophical  propadeutic,  which 
here  in  Austria  includes  logic  and  psychology.  At  that  time 
I  had  of  course  attended  several  courses  of  lectures  in  philosophy 
at  the  university,  but  my  scientific  studies  up  to  that  time  had 
been  exclusively  classical  philology.  I  was  under  necessity 
therefore  to  work  up  this  new  department,  and  I  made  no  secret 
of  my  lack  of  preparation  to  my  pupils.  We  worked  together 
in  the  most  enthusiastic  fashion  and  my  pupils  told  me  many 
years  afterward  that  my  candour  had  produced  the  very  best 
impression  on  them.     Years  later,  after  I  had  studied  psychology 


Didactics  155 

and  philosophy  intensively  for  a  considerable  period,  I  required 
my  pupils  to  make  criticisms,  as  observed  above  (p,  124). 
The  class  periods  developed  enthusiastic  interest,  the  discussions 
were  lively,  but  never  any  drag  or  hesitation.  I  was  always  in 
position  to  break  off  the  discussion  when  it  threatened  confusion, 
and  had  frequent  occasion  to  pronounce  the  suggestions  of  the 
pupils  as  valuable. 

These  experiences  confirm  my  conviction'  therefore  that  in 
the  advanced  classes  the  intellectual  authority  of  the  teacher  can 
and  should  be  transferred  to  science  itself,  without  detriment  to 
the  dignity  of  the  teacher.  Training  to  intellectual  inde- 
pendence raises  this  transformation  to  an  indispensable  require- 
ment. 

If  all  teachers  fully  appreciated  this  necessity  there  would 
be  no  need  of  prescribed  regulations  concerning  the  more  liberal 
treatment  of  pupils  in  the  higher  classes.  This  more  liberal 
treatment  develops  quite  naturally.  The  teacher  thus  becomes 
the  advantageous  guiding  friend  of  the  pupil,  who  leads  the 
way  by  which  they  attain  scientific  discipline  and  intellectual 
independence. 

We  have  still  to  answer  briefly  the  question  how  intellectual 
authority  is  acquired,  and  how  it  is  retained.  The  apt  remark 
of  Demosthenes,  that  it  is  often  more  difficult  to  keep  than  to 
gain  wealth,  likewise  applies  to  authority. 

Every  prospective  teacher  should  strive  to  get  the  foundation 
for  intellectual  authority  at  the  university.  If  he  brings  thor- 
ough, comprehensive  knowledge  of  his  subject  with  him  from 
the  university  as  well  as  joy  in  scientific  research  and  a  candid 
conscientiousness  on  scientific  problems,  he  Vv'ill  at  once  inspire 
the  respect  of  his  pupils  at  the  first  classes  that  he  conducts. 
On  the  other  hand  superficiality  and  indifference  together  with 
the  indolence  which  is  generally  coupled  with  it  will  soon  be 
discovered  by  the  pupils  and  the  loss  of  authority  follows  only 
too  soon.  The  knowledge  acquired  at  the  university  must 
nevertheless  be  deepened  and  thoroughly  established  by  the 
most  careful  preparation  and  constant  expansion.  Especially 
during  our  first  years  of  teaching  we  must  spare  no  effort,  we 
must  lay  hold  of  everything  which  will  contribute  to  the  under- 
standing of  a  passage,  to  the  vivifying  of  the  historical  lecture, 
to  the  sure  success  of  the  laboratory  experiment.     If  the  classical 


156  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

philologist  will  not  take  the  time  to  work  through  detailed 
commentaries,  to  make  free  use  of  the  reference  books,  if,  as  is 
not  infrequently  the  case,  he  absolutely  refuses  to  acquire  com- 
plete mastery  of  the  scientific  and  technical  facts  which  appear 
in  the  lesson,  he  need  not  be  surprised  if  it  occasionally  happens 
that  a  diligent  student  will  know  more  than  his  teacher.  I 
still  have  a  vivid  recollection  of  the  trouble  I  had  to  find  out 
something  more  authentic  about  the  "  wild  asses "  which 
Xenophon  speaks  about  in  the  Anabasis,  and  how  difficult  I 
found  it  to  picture  to  my  mind  the  kind  of  Celtic  masonry  which 
Caesar  describes  in  the  seventh  book  of  the  Gallic  Wars.  I 
have,  however,  constantly  acted  on  the  principle  that  the  philolo- 
gist must  be  thoroughly  saturated  with  his  authors  even  as  to 
matters  of  fact.  Hence,  in  proportion  as  the  teacher  makes  light 
of  these  things,  he  may  require  the  necessarj'  care  and  thor- 
oughness in  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  student,  but  he  will 
not  secure  it. 

The  scientific  ability  and  conscientiousness  of  the  teacher 
are  therefore  the  foundation  of  his  intellectual  authority.  It  is 
possible  therefore  for  ever}'  teacher  to  acquire  and  retain  them, 
because  they  do  not  require  any  special  gifts  of  personality,  but 
above  all  else  accurate  knowledge  and  careful  preparation.  But 
if  the  teacher  is  to  lead  the  way  and  effect  the  transition  from 
the  intellectual  authority  based  on  his  personality  to  the  im- 
personal scientific  authority  which  we  have  set  forth,  he  must 
unquestionably  have  an  adequate  amount  of  the  other  kind  of 
authority  which  we  above  described  as  moral.  Otherwise  he 
will  lose  his  influence  and  the  school  will  suffer  harm.  We 
must  therefore  now  examine  the  conditions  and  effects  of 
moral  authority  more  closely. 

By  moral  authority  we  mean,  as  observed  above,  the  influ- 
ence of  the  teacher  on  the  feelings  and  will  of  the  pupil.  We 
have  described  sensitivity  to  the  praise  or  blame  of  the  teacher 
and  unquestioned  obedience  as  the  criteria  by  which  the  teacher 
may  discover  whether  he  still  possesses  this  authority.  It  re- 
mains for  us  to  inquire,  in  what  the  significance  of  this  form 
of  authority  in  pedagogic  discipline  consists? 

We  must  observe,  first  of  all,  that  the  moral  authority  of 
the  teacher  is  an  important  condition  for  the  smooth  and  suc- 
cessful conduct  of  instruction.     If  the  pupil  is  not  indifferent 


Didactics  157 

to  the  praise  or  blame  of  the  teacher  he  will  try  to  please  him, 
that  is  to  say,  he  will  feel  a  sense  of  urgency  to  develop  his  own 
activity.  The  moral  authority  of  the  teacher  therefore  is  of 
considerable  advantage  in  arousing  interest.  Unquestioning 
obedience  likewise  makes  it  easier  to  apply  our  second  pedagogic 
principle,  the  habit  of  regularity  in  work.  It  follows  from 
this  that  the  moral  authority  of  the  teacher  is  not  required  to 
undergo  the  same  transformation  as  the  intellectual.  We  are 
in  need  of  the  moral  authority  in  the  first  year  as  well  as  in  the 
last.  Even  though  the  external  forms  of  conduct  towards 
pupils  change  with  the  age  period  the  subjective  basis  upon 
which  the  teacher's  moral  authority  rests  must  nevertheless 
remain  the  same. 

The  effect  of  moral  authority  is  still  more  important  for  the 
discipline  of  our  pupils.  Moral  authority  furnishes  us  with 
an  influence  over  what  Aristotle  called,  to,  ö'Aoya  r^'?  ^vxq^,  i.e., 
over  the  irrational  part  of  the  soul,  the  feeling  and  will  of  the 
pupil.  These,  moreover,  as  indicated  more  fully  above  (p.  66), 
constitute  the  substructure  of  consciousness.  If  the  teacher 
possesses  moral  authority,  habitually  praises  only  the  praise- 
worthy and  reproves  only  the  blameworthy,  if  he  furthermore 
requires  only  the  things  that  are  necessary  to  intellectual  de- 
velopment, he  will  be  able  indeed  to  contribute  incalculably  to 
the  positive  growth  of  personality  and  effect  entire  generations 
beneficently.  Moral  authority  therefore  lies  deeper  and  oper- 
ates more  slowly  than  intellectual.  Its  roots  are  hidden  away 
in  the  inmost  subjectivity  of  the  personality  of  the  teacher.  A 
suggestive  influence  issues  from  those  depths,  the  nature  of  which 
is  hard  to  describe  and  its  conditions  cannot  be  so  clearly  ex- 
plained as  in  the  case  of  intellectual  authority.  We  shall  never- 
theless endeavor,  out  of  a  rich  experience,  to  set  forth  at  least 
several  important  factors  which  may  serve  as  suggestions  to  the 
young  teacher, —  the  things  to  be  observed  and  the  things  to  be 
avoided  in  order  to  acquire  and  retain  moral  authority. 

We  must  first  of  all  note  the  fact  that  there  exists  a  relative 
independence  between  intellectual  and  moral  authority,  but  it  is 
by  no  means  absolute.  If  the  teacher  gives  evidence  of  learning 
and  at  the  same  time  manifests  a  high  degree  of  assurance  in 
handling  his  subject-matter,  he  has  already  laid  the  foundation 
for  moral  authority.     His  knowledge  and  careful  preparation 


158  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

secure  him  a  respectful  hearing  in  the  class-room  which  in  itself 
means  a  great  deal.  This  applies  not  only  to  the  first  year 
where,  as  observed  above,  intellectual  authority  must  be  abso- 
lute, but  likewise  to  the  advanced  classes  where  intellectual 
authority  has  been  transferred  to  impersonal  science.  It  is  in 
fact  the  pupils  of  the  higher  classes  who  are  impressed  by  a 
large  amount,  extensive  learning,  especially  if  not  exclusively 
limited  to  his  own  field.  If  the  pupils  get  the  impression  that 
their  teacher  is  a  man  of  learning  they  will  not  regard  his 
praise  and  reproof  with  indifference,  at  least  not  v/hen  the  case 
involves  an  intellectual  solution.  Hence  if  we  apply  ourselves 
diligently  to  the  increase  and  precision  of  our  knowledge,  if  we 
make  careful  preparation  and  consequently  appear  to  have  com- 
plete masteiy  of  our  subject-matter,  we  at  the  same  time  lay 
the  foundation  for  the  development  of  moral  authority.  This 
much  at  least  is  certain,  that  without  accurate  knowledge,  with- 
out scientific  thoroughness  it  is  difficult  to  acquire  moral  author- 
ity. If  a  man  lacks  assurance  in  his  knowledge  or  even  shows 
weakness  his  praise  and  reproof  will  be  a  matter  of  indifference 
to  the  pupils 

But  scientific  thoroughness  alone  is  not  sufficient  to  guarantee 
moral  quality.  There  are  still  certain  attributes  of  character 
that  must  be  added. 

Many  thinkers  hold  that  these  attributes,  just  because  they 
issue  from  the  depths  of  personality,  must  be  innate  and  cannot 
be  acquired.  In  my  judgment  however  and  experience  con- 
firms me  in  this,  that  the  young  teacher  as  a  matter  of  fact  is 
but  rarely  a  fully  developed  personality.  I  have  discovered 
in  my  own  experience  that  it  is  really  the  school  that  develops 
the  personality  of  the  teacher.  I  know  from  my  own  experi- 
ence that  firm  resolution,  rigorous  self-discipline,  careful  prepa- 
ration and  constant  reflection  on  the  principles  employed,  even 
if  the  peculiar  gifts  of  leadership  are  lacking,  will  gradually 
give  the  young  teacher  the  necessary  assurance  with  which  to 
begin.  I  hope,  for  this  reason,  that  the  following  suggestions 
and  advice  may  be  helpful  to  many  young  colleagues  in  ac- 
quiring moral  authority. 

If  we  intend  that  praise  and  reproof  are  to  make  an  im- 
pression on  the  pupils,  we  must  use  them  sparingly  and  in 
carefully  discriminating  degrees.     The  honors  which  we  con- 


Didactics  159 

fer  on  the  pupils  should  be,  to  employ  the  phrase  of  Cornelius 
Nepos,  "  rara  ac  tennes,"  i.e.  they  must  not  be  given  too  fre- 
quently and  not  with  too  extravagant  expression.  The  simple 
performance  of  duty  is  taken  for  granted,  on  the  other  hand  an 
act  which  is  distinctly  extraordinary,  a  peculiarly  pertinent  an- 
swer, should  be  kindly  and  openly  commended.  It  is  similarly 
advisable  to  practise  economy  with  reproof.  An  inattentive 
pupil  may  frequently  be  brought  back  to  active  participation 
merely  by  fixing  attention  on  him.  In  the  matter  of  habitual 
neglect  of  duty  I  have  frequently,  instead  of  a  reproof,  simply 
expressed  my  surprise  and  generally  found  it  more  effective. 
However,  in  the  case  of  a  grave  misdemeanor,  which  even  in- 
volves dishonesty,  strong  expression  of  indignation  is  in  place, 
but  it  should  never  include  abuse. 

On  the  matter  of  influencing  the  will  we  will  proceed  most 
most  effectively  if  we  plan  carefully  and  exactly  in  advance  just 
what  we  intend  to  require.  However,  once  the  requirement 
has  been  made  we  must  refuse  absolutely  to  relax.  We  must 
insist  with  energy  and  tenacity  that  our  requirements  be  actu- 
ally fulfilled.  As  soon  as  the  pupils  discover  that  objection, 
side-stepping,  or  forgetfulness  are  useless,  they  will  learn,  and 
that  right  quickly,  to  adjust  themselves  to  our  requirements 
without  resistance. 

In  order  to  maintain  moral  authority  it  is  exceedingly  im- 
portant that  the  teacher  does  not  permit  his  personal  sympathies 
and  antipathies  towards  certain  pupils,  feelings  which  are  thor- 
oughly human  and  incapable  of  complete  elimination,  to  affect 
the  treatment  and  esteem  of  the  pupil.  Absolute  justice  is  the 
surest  means  for  the  acquisition  and  maintenance  of  authority. 
Pupils  endure  with  comparative  readiness  a  considerable  degree 
of  rigor  in  the  requirements,  provided  the  teacher  never  violates 
their  sense  of  justice.  And  every  teacher  can  avoid  this  if  he 
determines  to  do  so.  There  is  a  proverb  that  love  cannot  be 
taken  by  force,  but  a  man  can  attain  to  justice  by  diligent  re- 
flection and  self-discipline.  And  justice,  let  me  repeat  it,  is  the 
most  important  source  of  moral  authority. 

We  might  perhaps  suggest  additional  conditions  and  methods 
which  indicate  the  way  by  which  the  teacher  can  acquire  au- 
thority. I  shall  however  let  the  matter  rest  with  what  has 
been  said.     What  seems  to  me  the  most  important  is  the  con- 


i6o 


Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 


viction  of  every  teacher  that  intellectual  and  moral  authority 
are  indispensable  prerequisites  to  successful  teaching,  and  that 
it  is  possible  to  acquire  these  by  knowledge  and  will. 

However,  notwithstanding  its  great  importance,  the  author- 
ity of  the  teacher  is  never  an  end  in  itself,  but  always  only  a 
means.  It  is  certainly  granted  that  we  are  here  for  the  sake 
of  the  pupils,  not  the  pupils  for  our  sakes.  We  require  au- 
thority in  order  that  we  may  lead  our  pupils  safely  and  ac- 
curately. 


I 


CHAPTER  V 

ETHICAL   AND   SOCIAL    PROBLEMS 

I.     The  Ethical  Factor  in  the  Secondary  School 

WE  have  repeatedlj^  had  occasion  during  the  course  of  our 
investigations  to  refer  to  the  ethical  problems  of  the  sec- 
ondar}^  school.  We  have  described  social-ethical  training  as  an 
integral  element  of  general  education.  It  consists,  as  we  en- 
deavored to  show,  in  a  corresponding  development  of  the  func- 
tion of  volition,  and  moreover,  in  such  a  way  as  to  effect  an 
invigoration,  control,  and  expansion  of  the  will  (pp.  70,  83). 
According  to  our  way  of  looking  at  it  this  expansion  consists 
in  giving  the  choices  of  our  pupils  the  social  point  of  view  and 
to  arouse  in  them  the  ability  and  necessity  of  advancing  in 
every  way  the  social  whole  of  which  they  are  a  part.  Our 
second  pedagogic  principle,  which  we  have  described  as  "  the 
habit  of  industr>',"  gave  us  occasion  to  call  attention  to  the 
fact  that  one  of  the  most  important  ethical  problems  of  the 
secondarj^  school  is  the  matter  of  developing  industry.  We 
have  also  referred  to  the  fact  that  intellectual  discipline  can  be 
effective  only  as  it  is  supported  by  fixed  volitional  dispositions 
which  likewise  constitute  its  vital  basis.  And  finally,  we  have 
repeatedly  emphasized  that  it  is  the  dut)^  and  responsibility  of 
the  secondarj^  school  to  train  its  pupils  not  alone  to  intellectual 
independence,  but  likewise  to  a  sense  of  moral  responsibility. 

These  occasional  references  indicate  that,  in  addition  to  the 
scientific  and  didactic,  the  secondary  teacher  likewise  has  very 
important  ethical  and  social  problems  to  solve.  But  the  mat- 
ter is  by  no  means  at  an  end  when  we  have  become  clearly 
and  vitally  aware  of  the  problems.  We  must  clearly  isolate 
the  ethical  factor  of  the  secondary  school  so  as  to  understand 
that  our  whole  pedagogic  activity,  but  especially  the  administra- 
tion of  discipline,  must  be  surcharged  with  the  ethical  and  social 
spirit.     While  we  are  teaching  our  pupils  and  endeavoring  to 

161 


102  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

discipline  their  intellect  we  must  constantly  try  to  establish  their 
character,  to  furnish  them  a  firm  spiritual  foundation.  More- 
over, we  are  thus  simply  fulfilling  the  intention  of  the  Austrian 
Organization-plan,  where  the  ultimate  and  highest  aim  of  edu- 
cation is  said  to  be,  "  a  well-trained  noble  character." 

This  phase  of  our  pedagogic  activity  is  just  at  present  of 
quite  peculiar  significance.  In  this  point  I  fully  agree  with 
Fr,  W.  Foerster,  who,  near  the  beginning  of  his  School  and 
Character,  emphasizes  the  necessity  of  a  more  intensive  discipline 
of  character  in  our  modern  schools,  and  insists  on  a  thorough 
reform  of  school  discipline. 

The  technical  civilization  of  our  age  can  show  achievements 
which  no  one  could  have  dreamed  a  century  ago.  All  the  ob- 
stacles to  travel  have  been  overcome,  the  Oecumene  of  the  an- 
cients is  becoming  more  and  more  one  mighty  unity,  whose  parts 
are  constantly  revealing  a  more  intimate  relationship.  And 
now  that  we  are  in  the  act  of  subduing  the  air  and  making  it 
an  instrument  in  human  commerce,  we  are  raising  the  words 
of  Horace  "  Nil  mortalibus  arduum  est,"  to  an  overwhelming 
truth. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  admiration  with  which  we  are 
filled  by  these  achievements  of  the  human  mind  we  must  never- 
theless not  ignore  the  dangers  involved  in  this  technical  and 
economical  advance.  Human  interests  are  constantly  growing 
more  materialistic,  our  spiritual  vision  is  being  torn  towards 
externals  with  ever  increasing  force.  We  scarcely  have  time 
or  interest  any  longer  to  think  about  ourselves,  to  cultivate  our 
deeper  spiritual  powers,  to  interpret  the  purpose  and  meaning 
of  existence  from  within.  The  consequence  is  that  inner  un- 
rest and  spiritual  abandon  with  its  correlated  nervousness  which 
constitutes  so  deplorable  a  characteristic  of  the  modern  man, 
especially  the  modern  youth.  If  parents,  physicians  and  teach- 
ers do  not  interpose  most  vigorously  the  danger  is  not  excluded 
that  civilized  humanity  will  be  destroyed  by  the  mighty  forces 
of  its  own  creation. 

If  the  technical  and  economic  progress  of  humanity  is  to  be 
a  blessing  and  not  a  curse,  man's  subjective  mastery  of  his  spir- 
itual powers  must  keep  even  pace  with  the  splendid  achievements 
in  the  external  mastery  over  nature.  We  must  learn  to  pro- 
pose  higher   ideals   and   to   suppress   passing  inclinations   and 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  163 

moods,  momentary  wishes,  impulses  and  temptations  in  the  in- 
terest of  these  ideals.  The  complaint  has  frequently  been  made 
that  moral  progress  is  far  outstripped  by  technical  progress. 
Sophocles  expressed  this  idea  more  than  tvvo  thousand  years  ago: 

%o<^6v    TL    TO    fx-q^avocv    Te;(vas 
VTrep  eA.7rtS'  €;(wv  ttotc  jucv  KaKOV 
aWoT    Itt'  €(j6\ov  ipTrei, 

"  Endowed  beyond  all  expectation  with  the  wisdom  of  art, 
man  still  reverts  now  to  the  bad  and  then  again  to  the  good." 
(Antigone,  365  ff. )  Pestalozzi  observes  even  more  clearly: 
"  Just  as  in  the  case  of  an  individual  man,  so  likewise  a  whole 
epoch  may  achieve  great  progress  in  the  knowledge  of  the  truth 
while  at  the  same  time  be  wofully  lacking  in  doing  good." 
Foerster,  who  quotes  this  passage  of  Pestalozzi's,  adds:  "  These 
words  were  spoken  over  a  century  ago  and  yet  they  seem  to  be 
intended  directly  for  our  own  age." 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  these  complaints  against  the 
respective  ages  find  justification  and  that  at  present  they  are 
perhaps  even  more  true  than  ever  before,  we  must  nevertheless 
not  neglect  the  additions  to  moral  progress  which  our  age  has  to 
show.  Penal  law  has  grown  less  cruel,  corporal  punishment  has 
receded,  the  solvent  debtor  receives  more  humane  consideration 
at  the  hands  of  the  law.  Labor  is  being  more  highly  esteemed, 
men  are  speaking  in  no  uncertain  tone  of  the  duties  of  wealth, 
and  the  fact  that  public  opinion  is  far  more  sensitive  and  strict 
on  moral  affairs  is  readily  perceivable.  We  are  as  a  matter  of 
course  still  far  short  of  what  we  ought  to  be  in  moral  progress, 
but  it  were  nevertheless  unfair  to  deny  that  we  are  moving 
forward  ethically.  And  it  is  just  for  this  reason  that  it  is  so 
highly  important  that  the  secondary  school  appreciate  its  moral 
and  social  problem.  If  we  succeed  in  developing  our  pupils 
into  moral  characters  by  means  of  our  instruction  and  discipline 
we  will  produce  a  public  opinion  of  the  next  generation  that 
will  be  still  more  strict  and  sensitive  to  moral  facts.  We  may 
say,  therefore,  the  worthiness  of  humanity  is  placed  in  our  charge. 
It  depends  upon  us  what  attitude  the  rising  generation  will  take 
to  the  problems  of  social  ethics.  We  share  the  responsibility  in 
case  there  is  evidence  of  a  breaking  down  of  principles,  an  in- 


164  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

crease  of  egoism,  a  loss  of  the  sense  of  solidarity.  We  are 
responsible  if  our  young  people  regard  every  caprice  and  every 
desire  as  an  essential  part  of  their  personality  the  development 
of  which  is  at  present  described  as  the  highest  gq^l.  We  have 
failed  in  proportion  as  our  academic  youth  exults  about  "  the 
will  to  power  "  and  so  conceives  the  "  revaluation  of  values  " 
that  everything  is  right  to  the  strong. 

Once  we  teachers  have  risen  to  this  high  conception  of  our 
vocation,  each  one  of  us  will  feel  obliged  to  get  a  clear  under- 
standing of  moral  evolution  and  the  moral  destiny  of  mankind, 
but  more  particularly  of  the  moral  requirements  which  our 
immediate  age  imposes  and  must  impose  on  the  individual.  Any- 
one who  has  attained  this  clear  insight,  by  means  of  careful  study 
and  independent  reflection  and  especially  by  analytic  observation 
of  child  mind,  will  readily  be  in  position  to  evaluate  all  peda- 
gogic material  from  the  viewpoint  of  social  ethics  and  to  ad- 
minister school  discipline  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  the  rise 
of  bitterness  and  crudity,  the  tendency  to  treachery  and  deceit 
among  the  pupils,  but  rather  subjective  invigoration,  cheerful 
cooperation  and  spontaneous  subjection. 

Every  teacher  has  at  his  disposal  an  extensive  literature  on 
ethics  and  sociology  adapted  to  such  study  as  this.  The  rich- 
est collection  of  materials  for  the  actual  evolution  of  the  moral 
sense  is  found  in  Westermarck's  Origin  and  Development  of 
Moral  Ideas.  (2  vols.)  No  library  should  be  without  this 
book.  But  as  respects  the  various  theories,  ever>'one  must  be 
free  to  choose  the  guide  with  whose  help  he  is  best  able  to  ac- 
quire clear  insight.  It  is  of  course  beyond  my  present  task  to 
discuss  the  leading  moral  theories  and  critically  state  my  atti- 
tude towards  each  one.  And  this  would  be  of  little  value  to 
the  teacher  who  is  seeking  help.  On  the  other  hand  I  may 
perhaps  rather  hope  to  facilitate  the  orientation  of  one  or  an- 
other by  briefly  outlining  my  own  views  and  try  to  show  how 
they  apply  to  the  problems  of  the  school. 

The  moral  evolution  of  the  human  race,  in  my  judgment, 
reveals  two  tendencies  which  frequently  operate  against  each 
other.  On  the  one  hand  human  society  in  the  form  of  the 
herd,  the  tribe,  the  class,  the  nationality,  the  state  coerces  the 
individual  into  subjection  and  servitude  to  the  whole.  It  im- 
poses requirements  upon  us  which  in  conscience  we  find  obliga- 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  165 

tory.  Public  condemnation  or  even  punishment  are  the  con- 
sequences which  follow  the  ignoring  or  the  violation  of  these 
requirements.  The  sum  total  of  obligations  which  societ>'  im- 
poses on  the  individual  may  be  expressed  in  the  comprehensive 
term,  duty  towards  humanity.  Social  conscience  bids  us  fulfill 
our  duty  towards  humanit\^  (Cf.  Jerusalem,  hitroduction  to 
Philosophy,  Eng.  Tr.,  p.  271.)  On  the  other  hand  every  man 
constantly  learns  to  appreciate  his  individual  dignity  more  highly. 
The  mere  fulfillment  of  social  requirements  ceases  to  satisfy  us 
in  direct  proportion  to  the  degree  to  which  our  individual  per- 
sonality has  been  developed.  We  impose  obligations  upon  our- 
selves and  we  are  dissatisfied  until  we  are  conscious  of  having 
done  our  best.  We  likewise  resist  social  requirements  when- 
ever these  impair  the  dignity  of  our  individual  personality.  As 
Kant  puts  it,  we  discover  that  we  are  no  longer  mere  means 
but  that  we  are  ends  in  ourselves.  The  sum  total  of  the  re- 
quirements thus  evolved  may  be  described  as  personal  worth 
or  dignity. 

We  shall  proceed  to  investigate  this  twofold  development  of 
morality  in  the  human  race  a  little  more  thoroughly. 

2.     Personal  Duty  and  Personal  Dignity 

Human  society  is  the  birthplace  of  moral  ideas.  Wester- 
marck,  in  the  work  previously  cited,  has  not  only  made  this 
affirmation,  but  he  has  demonstrated  it  incontrovertibly  by  an 
overwhelming  abundance  of  inductive  matters  of  fact.  All 
morality  is  both  in  its  origin  and,  as  I  shall  hope  to  show,  like- 
wise in  its  essence,  of  a  social  nature.  This  depends  on  the 
fact  that,  as  Aristotle  observed,  man  is  by  nature  a  social  being 
{(l>v(Ti.i  TToXiTiKov  t,^ov,  PoHtlcs  I,  2).  And  as  a  matter"  of  fact 
we  find  that  man,  wherever  we  first  come  in  contact  with  him 
in  history  and  wherever  explorers  meet  with  him  —  frequently 
under  very  primitive  conditions  —  always  lives  in  groups.  The 
attachment  of  the  individual  to  the  general  will  of  his  group, 
i.e.,  his  attachment  to  custom,  moral  conceptions  and  the  ideas  of 
religious  faith,  is  greater  on  the  lower  levels  of  civilization  than 
on  the  higher,  but  some  kind  of  attachment  is  always  present.  A 
completely  isolated  individual,  entirely  separate  from  human 
society  never  occurs  and  never  will  occur.     For: 


l66  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

Der  Mensch  bedarf  des  Menschen  sehr 
Zu  seinem  grossen  Ziele 
Und  nur  im  Ganzen  wirket  er. 

Under  primitive  conditions  this  attachment  of  the  individual 
remains  largely  unconscious  and  likewise  acts  instinctively. 
The  individual  regulates  his  conduct  according  to  the  customs 
and  morals  of  his  ancestry  without  giving  the  matter  much 
thought.  But  as  the  groups  increase  in  size  and  the  state 
assumes  more  complicated  forms,  the  requirements  which  the 
group  imposes  on  the  individual  becomes  more  clearly  and 
more  sharply  defined.  In  this  way  every  citizen  becomes  clearly 
aware  of  his  obligation  to  the  group  as  a  whole.  It  is  only  the 
clear  consciousness  of  this  demand  of  the  whole  that  comes 
under  the  term  duty. 

The  term  duty  is  wholly  a  social  concept  and  possesses  all  the 
attributes  which  we  have  previously  suggested  as  the  character- 
istics of  society.  As  a  social  concept  duty  possesses  imperative 
character  and  impresses  the  individual  as  an  authoritative  com- 
mand. But  duty  likewise  reveals  that  peculiar  dual  nature  of 
which  we  have  spoken  above.  It  is  in  us  as  a  consciousness  of 
duty,  as  a  sense  of  duty  and  acts  as  an  impelling  and  an  inhibit- 
ing influence  on  our  wills.  But  it  is  also  outside  us,  it  stands 
over  us  as  something  super-individual,  super-personal,  as  power 
and  authority.  This  super-individual  something  has  power  to 
coerce  us,  to  impose  punishment  and  confer  reward.  This  idea 
of  possible  condemnation  and  punishment  is  a  constant  element 
of  duty,  as  long  as  it  retains  its  strictly  social  character.  The 
power  which  meets  us  here  as  something  super-personal  is  the 
general  will  of  society  as  expressed  in  the  existing  laws  and  in- 
stitutions. In  this  way  the  concept  of  duty,  arising  from  purely 
human  factors,  soon  takes  on  a  strongly  religious  aspect.  Even 
in  Homer  we  find  that  kings  and  judges  protect  the  laws 
ITpos  Ato?,  i.e.,  as  ambassadors  of  Zeus,  the  supreme  god.  We 
likewise  read  that  Zeus  sends  a  wind-storm  because  men  distort 
the  law,  banish  justice  and  pay  no  heed  to  the  will  of  the  gods. 
Zeus  is  likewise  the  protector  of  strangers  and  beggars.  In- 
stitutions and  laws  acquire  a  somewhat  sacred  and  eternal 
aspect  by  this  connection  with  super-sensible  powers.  Anyone 
who  breaks  the  laws  is  not  only  an  enemy  and  a  traitor,  but 
even  a  blasphemer  against  the  divine  will. 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  167 

But  in  this  way  the  general  will,  once  it  assumes  the  form  of 
the  regulations  of  society,  acquires  a  decidedly  conservative 
character.  These  institutions  have  revealed  their  adaptability 
to  the  maintenance  of  the  social  structure,  and  they  must  there- 
fore not  be  disturbed.  A  counter  force  eventually  arises  within 
society  in  opposition  to  this  conservative  tendency,  which  is 
produced  and  brought  to  maturity  by  social  evolution  itself, 
notwithstanding  its  apparently  anti-social  and  revolutionary 
activity,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  contributes  tremendously  to  the 
progress  of  social  evolution.  This  power  consists  of  the  hu- 
man individual  with  an  intensified  consciousness  of  his  personal 
dignity.  Let  us  examine  how  this  new  power  arises  and  its 
method  of  operation. 

Every  cultural  advance  produces  a  more  complicated  organi- 
zation of  economic  life  or  is  rather  conditioned  and  supported 
by  this  progress  in  economic  intercourse.  But  the  increased 
demands  can  only  be  satisfied  by  a  constantly  increasing  division 
of  labor.  The  intensive  and  extensive  division  of  labor  has 
therefore  already  been  long  recognized  as  the  characteristic 
mark  of  ever>'  higher  cultural  evolution.  Where  the  agricul- 
turist and  his  family  formerly  provided  their  own  food,  their 
shelter,  their  clothing  and  their  utensils  themselves,  this  busi- 
ness is  now  divided  among  the  miller,  the  baker,  the  tailor,  the 
locksmith,  the  carpenter  and  mechanic.  In  addition  to  these, 
the  founding  of  cities  gives  rise  to  numerous  other  vocations 
which  owe  their  origin  to  the  newly  evolved  demands.  The 
inevitable  consequence  of  every  division  of  labor  moreover  is 
an  increasing  differentiation  of  interests  and  a  concomitant  dif- 
ferentiation of  characters.  The  agriculturist  who  lives  with 
his  family  from  the  products  of  the  fields  will  naturally  be 
most  deeply  interested  in  the  preservation  of  the  existing  institu- 
tions. An  increase  of  the  necessities  of  life  multiplies  his  dif- 
ficulties. Ever}'  political  upheaval,  every  war  threatens  his 
property.  At  the  same  time  his  uniform  occupation,  which 
only  rarely  requires  haste  makes  him  slow  and  perhaps  dull  in 
intellect.  Once  in  a  while  the  functional  necessities  of  his 
emotional  nature  seeks  excitement  and  on  this  account  gives 
eager  ear  to  the  recital  of  the  histories  of  "  war  and  rumors 
of  war." 

"  Sie  mögen  sich  die  Köpfe  spalten, 
Doch  nur  zu  Hause  bleib's  beim  Alten." 


1 68  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

The  tradesman,  on  the  other  hand,  must  be  more  versatile. 
Competition  forces  him  constantly  to  be  on  the  lookout  for 
new  methods  of  operation  and  new  markets  for  his  goods.  He 
is  therefore  interested  in  everything  new  and  he  is  consequently 
more  ready  for  changes.  So  likewise  the  professional  soldiers 
will  evolve  different  characteristics  from  the  peaceful  citizen. 
It  is  by  some  such  process  of  differentiation  as  this  that  certain 
individuals  are  developed,  which  formerly  submitted  to  the  gen- 
eral will  rather  instinctively  and  unconsciously,  into  personali- 
ties who  do  their  own  thinking,  who  try  to  put  their  own  judg- 
ment, their  own  interest,  their  own  principles  into  effect. 

The  independent  individual,  the  self-sufficient  personality 
does  not  exist  from  the  beginning,  but  first  appears  as  a  product 
of  social  evolution.  He  is  admittedly  one  of  its  most  valuable 
and  most  significant  products.  While  independently  thinking 
personalities  are  evolved  from  the  human  herd  a  downright  in- 
exhaustible supply  of  new  spiritual  energies  are  set  free,  which, 
with  their  infinite  capacities,  are  capable  of  creating  civilization 
in  the  real  sense  of  that  term. 

Man,  once  he  has  matured,  no  longer  accepts  laws  and  in- 
stitutions without  question  as  matters  of  course  and  unchange- 
able. He  has  come  to  feel  himself  a  being  with  powers  and 
values  distinctly  his  own  and  at  times  regards  himself  hampered, 
debased  and  robbed  of  his  rights  by  the  statutes  which  are 
sanctified  by  tradition.  Subjectively  revolting  and  becoming 
indignant,  he  raises  his  protest  against  the  oppressions  imposed 
by  the  power  of  the  eternally  bygone  and  finds  a  hearing  and 
an  understanding  appreciation  among  kindred  spirits.  This 
gives  rise  to  the  battle  of  the  individual  struggling  for  the 
freer  exercise  of  his  powers  against  every  kind  of  social  bondage, 
a  battle  which  began  over  two  thousand  years  ago,  manifested 
itself  in  the  most  varied  forms  and  is  not  yet  at  an  end.  There 
are  periods  of  history  in  which  this  battle  attains  exceptional 
prominence.  Permit  me  to  present  several  of  these  in  order 
that  the  nature  of  this  conflict  which  profoundly  uproots  hu- 
manity and  thus  becomes  a  mighty  dynamic  of  progress  may  be 
conceived  more  clearly  and  realistically. 

During  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries  B.  c,  we  behold  this 
prolific  strife  of  intellects  vividly  portrayed  in  Athens,  the 
training  school  of  Hellas  {-n-alhtvai^  'EXXaSos).     The  speeches  of 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  169 

Kallicles  in  Plato's  Gorgias,  no  less  by  their  utter  lack  of  con- 
sideration for  tradition  than  in  their  finished  style,  furnish  a 
peculiarly  clear  illustration  of  this  intellectual  current.  The 
irresponsibility  of  the  strong  personality,  its  privilege  of  injustice 
and  force  is  vigorously  defended  against  Socrates  —  Plato,  who 
emphasizes  adherence  to  the  moral  law,  which,  notwithstanding 
its  super-individual  and  transcendental  origin,  can  be  developed 
within  the  soul  of  each  individual  human  being. 

Christianity,  in  deepest  essence,  is  nothing  more  than  the 
deliverance  of  the  individual  from  the  overwhelming  pressure 
of  the  law.  In  post-exilic  Judaism  this  law  had  become  an 
absolute  authority  in  the  presence  of  which  the  individual  was 
forbidden  to  know  or  do  anything,  save  to  yield  absolute  sub- 
servience. When  Christianity  turns  its  attention  to  man's  sub- 
jective self,  digs  up  his  feelings  in  their  profoundest  depths 
with  tremendous  energy,  demands  superhuman  reactions  from 
his  will  in  lieu  of  which,  moreover,  satisfaction  is  promised  for 
the  individual's  need  of  redemption,  it  released  spiritual  energies 
which  were  entirely  new,  w^hich  until  then  had  been  practically 
dormant.  Each  individual  human  being  now  acquires  an  im- 
portance of  his  own,  for  like  all  others  he  is  a  child  of  God. 
This  spontaneous  development  of  spiritual  powers  has  indeed 
suffered  serious  restriction  through  the  organization  of  Chris- 
tianity into  an  ecclesiastical  institution.  The  church,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  course,  is  founded  on  authority  rather  than  on  liberty. 
In  sole  possession  of  the  means  of  grace  it  in  large  measure  as- 
sumes responsibility  for  the  life  of  the  individual  and  thus  lulls 
to  sleep  again  the  conscience  which  Christ  had  aroused.  Per- 
sonality, grown  stronger,  array's  itself  against  this  tutelage  once 
more  in  two  movements  which  are  essentially  distinct  from 
each  other.  The  one  movement  is  protestantism,  which,  at  the 
beginning  aims  to  reinstate  the  deliverance  of  the  mind  from 
the  tyranny  of  dogma  and  law  characteristic  of  primitive  Chris- 
tianity and  accordingly  finds  enthusiastic  adherents.  True,  it 
is  not  long  until  protestantism  likewise  is  seized  with  the  torpor 
of  an  authoritative  church,  but  it  nevertheless  seems  that  here 
there  is  somewhat  more  room  for  the  spontaneous  development 
of  personal  conviction. 

The  other  form  of  the  disenthrallment  of  the  individual  is 
the  still  active  movement  of   humanism  and   the   renaissance. 


lyo  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

Here  it  is  the  Greeks  who  put  man  into  possession  of  himself 
once  more  and,  by  their  world-view  characteristically  devoted 
to  life,  again  establish  the  distinctive  worth  of  each  individual 
human  being  and  joy  in  the  developing  of  personal  energies. 
This  so-called  civil  emancipation  of  mankind  is  still  in  process 
of  development.  The  eighteenth  century  enlightenment  issuing 
from  England,  temperamentally  intensified  in  France,  the  storm 
and  stress  and  neohumanism  in  Germany,  the  sanguinary  strug- 
gle for  human  rights  in  America  and  France,  all  this  is  but  the 
same  constant  striving  after  the  realization  of  the  distinctive 
dignity  of  each  individual  human  personality. 

The  most  important  product  of  this  cultural  evolution  con- 
sists of  a  new  moral  ideal  which  correlates  with  the  require- 
ments of  human  duty  previously  elaborated  and  suffuses  it  with 
a  new  spirit.  We  shall  describe  this  new  moral  ideal  as  the 
impulse  towards  the  dignity  of  man.  Every  human  individual 
is  therefore  no  longer  merely  a  laboring  animal  among  the  herd, 
not  merely  an  enslaved  member  of  society,  but  possesses  unique 
dignity  as  a  man,  as  a  representative  of  the  human  species. 
Laws  and  institutions  which  violate  personal  dignity  must  be 
vigorously  assailed.  Humanity  must  be  respected  in  the  in- 
solvent debtor,  yea  even  in  the  criminal.  And  the  rack  has 
been  abolished  by  the  sway  of  this  new  ideal  of  the  dignity  of 
man,  the  whipping  post  has  likewise  receded  into  the  background 
and  regard  for  humanity  also  appears  in  various  other  ways  in 
our  penal  laws.  This  new  requirement  in  the  first  place  ex- 
pands the  circle  of  duties.  Both  in  legislation  and  economic 
life  new  duties  of  benevolence  have  arisen.  And  these  new 
ideals  have  produced  even  more  profound  results  upon  man  sub- 
jectively than  objectively.  My  conscience  is  no  longer  satisfied 
when  I  have  met  the  objective  requirements  imposed  upon  me 
by  the  state  and  society.  The  dignity  of  man  demands  of  me 
that  I  develop  all  my  powers,  that  I  do  my  best  to  advance  and 
realize  my  better  self. 

The  moral  law  of  human  dignity  has  been  set  forth  and 
elaborated  most  analytically  and  most  penetratingly  by  Im- 
manuel Kant.  "  Act  so  as  to  use  humanity,  whether  in  your 
own  person  or  in  the  person  of  another,  alwa5's  as  and  end,  never 
as  merely  a  means."  This  famous  second  formulation  of  the 
"  categorical  imperative  "  constitutes  a  whole  moral  program. 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  171 

Kant,  as  is  indeed  characteristic  of  his  ethics,  has  likewise  over- 
strained this  requirement.  His  unconditional  rejection  of  ly- 
ing, deduced  from  the  principle  of  human  dignitj^  is  impractical 
in  social  life,  it  sometimes  even  conflicts  with  higher  social 
duties.  But  notwithstanding  this  his  requirements  elaborated 
with  relentless  logical  consistency  continue  to  be  of  vast  sig- 
nificance. He  constructs  an  ideal,  the  realization  of  which 
steels  one's  energies  even  if  he  knows  it  is  beyond  the  reach  of 
mortals. 

We  also  discover  an  overstrain  of  this  individualistic  prin- 
ciple among  the  protagonists  of  neohumanism  in  romanticism. 
Goethe's  remark  that  personality  is  the  highest  fortune  of  mun- 
dane children  is  frequently  quoted.  William  v.  Humboldt  is 
a  typical  representative  of  this  view  of  the  moral  task  of  man- 
kind. We  have  quoted  several  passages  above,  from  which  it 
follows  that  Humboldt  felt  man's  highest  duty  to  consist  in 
developing  all  his  capacities  and  to  be  constantly  occupied  with 
this  finishing  of  his  subjective  self.  Humboldt  even  resigned 
a  state  appointment  early  in  life  in  order  to  devote  himself 
entirely  to  this  problem  of  self-discipline.  Even  though  he 
later  again  served  the  state  in  important  positions,  the  refine- 
ment of  personality  still  remains  his  express  moral  ideal.  "  My 
vocation  seemed  to  me  to  be  to  discover  the  path  which  would 
lead  me,  me  alone,  to  the  highest  destiny."  We  discover  similar 
endeavors  among  the  earlier  romanticists,  where  among  other 
factors  the  aesthetic  motives  predominate. 

During  the  nineteenth  centun^  a  powerful  reaction  against 
this  onesided  cultivation  of  the  individualistic  principle  set  in, 
which  went  to  the  opposite  extreme  and  emphasized  the  social 
problem  of  humanity  so  vigorously,  that  the  new  moral  ideal  of 
human  dignity,  achieved  through  the  struggle  of  centuries,  fell 
into  abeyance.  This  reaction  is  the  product  of  economic  evolu- 
tion. The  invention  of  the  steam  engine,  railways,  steamship 
propellers  and  telegraphy  has  resulted  in  a  colossal  advance  in 
the  industries.  Great  manufacturing  establishments  arose  in 
which  the  hosts  of  laborers  were  completely  subordinated  to  the 
will  of  the  manager.  Unrestrained  egoism  was  elevated  to  the 
distinction  of  a  principle  in  economic  life  by  the  so-called  Man- 
chester plan.  The  wages  of  labor  is  then  simply  an  administra- 
tive account  for  the  manager,  which  he  naturally  seeks  to  keep 


172  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

as  low  as  possible.  Laborers  were  therefore  rapidly  worn  out 
and  frequentl)'  received  such  small  wages  that  they  were  scarcely 
able  to  appease  their  hunger.  On  the  other  hand  the  army  of 
the  proletariat  arose  inspired  by  their  leading  spirits  with  a 
consciousness  of  their  rights  and  power.  This  gave  rise  to 
the  powerful  social-democracy  movement  which  is  still  on  the  in- 
crease. The  organization  of  the  laboring  classes  is  becoming 
increasingly  more  general  and  at  the  same  time  more  robust. 
"  Expropriation  of  the  expropriator  "  was  the  watchword  of 
the  earlier  more  revolutionary  period.  Later  on  the  movement 
developed  into  a  systematic  program,  in  which  a  complete  change 
in  the  organization  of  society  based  upon  private  property  is 
demanded.  "  The  nationalization  of  all  the  instruments  of 
production  "  expresses  the  chief  point  of  this  program.  This 
means  that  the  production  of  all  goods  required  for  the  satisfac- 
tion of  the  primary  necessities  of  mankind  shall  no  longer  be 
left  to  private  enterprise  and  free  competition,  but  shall  be 
administered  bj^  the  state  organized  on  a  social-democratic  basis. 
In  this  state  the  obligation  to  work  shall  be  universal  and  the 
accumulation  of  a  large  amount  of  capital  in  the  hands  of  a 
few  individuals  shall  be  made  an  impossibility. 

The  problem  whether  this  program  is  at  all  feasible,  whether 
such  a  state  of  affairs  is  reconcilable  with  the  actual  variations 
in  human  capacity  and  tenable  for  any  length  of  time  does  not 
concern  us  here.  We  have  only  to  consider  the  extent  to  which 
this  movement  has  modified  the  moral  ideas  of  the  civilized 
nations.  We  must  observ^e  then  that  since  the  beginning  of 
Christianity  there  has  been  no  spiritual  factor  that  has  been 
so  active  in  this  respect  as  modern  socialism.  The  appreciation 
of  the  value  of  labor  has  increased  so  remarkably  in  public  opin- 
ion that  the  idea  of  the  universal  obligation  to  work  no  longer 
appears  entirely  Utopian.  The  wages  of  labor  have  been  pal- 
pably increased,  the  length  of  the  work  day  has  been  shortened. 
Practically  all  nations  have  found  it  necessary  to  pass  laws 
which  are  intended  to  guarantee  the  protection  of  the  laborer, 
their  superannuates,  invalid  and  accident  insurance.  People 
speak  more  than  ever  before  of  the  obligations  of  wealth  and 
the  idea  that  the  state  dare  not  permit  the  principle  of  unre- 
stricted egoism  in  economic  life  is  constantly  winning  new 
adherents. 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  173 

The  ethical  principle  which  is  active  in  this  movement  is 
without  doubt  social  through  and  through.  The  sphere  of 
duties  for  each  individual  is  enlarged  and  his  dependence  on 
the  social  whole  is  more  sharply  and  decisively  defined.  Every- 
one must  know  that  he  owes  certain  obligations  to  the  social 
organism  to  which  he  belongs,  and  he  must  constantly  be  kept 
in  mind  of  the  fact  that  he  can  be  required  to  discharge  these 
obligations.  Society  imperiously  remands  the  individual,  at 
whose  emancipation  it  had  been  unconsciously  working,  back 
into  its  service.  It  refuses  to  concede  that  the  highly  developed 
powers  be  employed  according  to  the  pleasure  of  the  individual. 
It  rather  claims  the  whole  man  with  all  his  dispositions  and 
capacities  for  itself  and  forces  him  into  its  service. 

But  on  the  other  hand  powerful  voices  begin  to  protest 
against  this  socialization  of  the  enfranchised  and  richly  endowed 
individual,  and  demanded, —  and  in  fact  partly  accomplished, — 
by  all  parties  of  social  reform.  Herbert  Spencer,  whom  Ludwig 
Stein  once  pertinently  called  the  philosopher  of  liberalism,  in 
his  Man  Versus  State,  describes  the  conditions  involved  in 
the  program  of  social  democracy  as  "  the  coming  slavery." 
Friedrich  Nietzsche's  philosophy,  in  its  deepest  meaning,  is 
nothing  more  than  a  vigorous  and  finally  a  forceful  emancipa- 
tion of  subjective  man  from  the  tyranny  of  tradition  and  from 
the  t^^ranny  of  the  masses.  In  his  irresistible  and  incredibly 
forceful  insistence  on  absolute  honesty,  on  herioc  loyalty  to  self, 
he  becomes  so  extraordinarily  clear-visioned  for  the  downright 
frightful  amount  of  hypocrisy  to  be  found  in  national  cus- 
tom and  unfortunately  even  in  national  ethics.  Nietzsche  per- 
ished in  this  desperate  battle  for  the  freedom  of  personality 
against  the  enforced  subordination  of  the  individual  to  the  social 
whole  but  his  works  constitute  a  rich  zvcnory  whence  man}'' 
coming  generations  will  draw  weapons  against  uniustified  sup- 
pression of  free  personality  among  men.  Nietzsche's  influence 
upon  our  modern  youth  has  frequently  been  quite  unfortunate 
and  dangerous  because  he  was  not  yet  fully  understood.  But 
now  since  men  begin  to  estimate  him  more  objectively,  the 
depths  of  his  psychological  penetration  and  the  pure  upright- 
ness of  his  sentiment  will  doubtless  become  an  exceedingly  valu- 
able cultural  factor. 

In  connection  with  Nietzsche  and  due  to  the  pressure  of  in- 


174  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

creasing  socialization  a  kind  of  neoromanticism  and  personality- 
cult,  supported  partly  by  aesthetic,  partly  by  religious  motives, 
has  evolved  since  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century.  This 
is  likewise  a  reaction  of  individualism  against  the  demands  of 
society  which  are  becoming  overwhelming,  a  battle  of  human 
dignity  against  the  frequently  oppressive  human  duty.  This 
personality-cult  might  doubtless  develop  into  a  new  source  of 
energy,  but  thus  far  it  lacks  a  firm  psychical  basis.  As  we  have 
previously  observed,  man  quite  frequently  regards  transitory 
moods,  superficial  wishes,  fancied  sympathies  and  antipathies  as 
effluences  of  personality  and  thinks  self-development  consists 
in  following  every  inspiration  and  neglecting  distasteful  tasks. 
At  present  we  frequently  find  young  people  utterly  lacking  in 
subjective  stability.  We  see  how  young  boys  and  girls  frivo- 
lously throw  their  young  life  away,  which  nevertheless  belongs 
to  the  family  and  to  the  state,  just  because  a  single  wish  re- 
mains unfulfilled,  because  not  every  budding  dream  matures. 
These  sad  facts,  which  unfortunately  are  increasing  daily, 
should  furnish  cause  for  reflection  to  all  fanatics  of  individual 
liberty,  and  especially  all  who  never  weary  of  emphasizing  that 
every  child  brings  its  finished  individuality  into  the  world  and 
that  this  individuality  must  be  fostered,  indulged  and  coddled 
and  dare  not  be  suppressed  by  any  kind  of  coercion.  The 
thought  expressed  by  Ellen  Key,  that  this  is  the  century  of  the 
child,  is  indeed  a  profound  idea.  The  modern  theory  of  evolu- 
tion finds  its  most  fruitful  application  in  the  demand  that  we 
direct  our  education  towards  the  future  rather  than  the  past. 
By  this  I  mean  that  the  aim  of  education  dare  no  longer  con- 
sist in  so  influencing  the  pupils  that  they  walk  in  the  paths 
laid  out  for  them  by  their  teachers  and  become  like  their 
forebears.  The  theory  of  evolution  teaches  us  that  each  genera- 
tion produces  something  new  and  that  we  should  therefore  in- 
stil in  our  children  the  capacity  of  contributing  to  the  creation 
and  development  of  the  new.  But  just  for  the  very  reason 
that  we  regard  education  as  an  aid  to  evolution  and  wish  to 
help  our  children  to  develop  complete,  well-rounded  personali- 
ties, we  must  not  forget  the  fact  that  this  involves  consideration 
for  the  social  requirements  quite  as  well  as  the  development  of 
the  individual  dispositions.  We  must  be  clearly  aware  of  the 
fact  that  we  are  at  present  right  in  the  midst  of  the  struggle 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  175 

of  these  two  evolutionary  tendencies.  The  problem  of  po- 
litical civilization  and  of  philosophical  civilization  of  the  twenti- 
eth century,  in  my  opinion  consists  in  making  possible  the  syn- 
thesis of  individualism  and  socialism,  the  reconciliation  of  the 
ideas  of  personal  duty  and  personal  dignity.  The  state  as  the 
authorized  agent  of  society  should  be  so  constituted  as  to  be 
able  to  require  and  compel  its  subjects  to  fulfill  their  social 
obligations  without  injur}^  to  their  personal  dignity.  We  dare 
not  permit  or  even  establish  any  institutions  which  betray  or 
even  force  the  individual  to  resort  to  falsehood,  treacherj'^  and 
deceit  because  the  burdens  imposed  by  the  state  are  unbearable. 
On  the  contrary  each  individual  should  clearly  understand  — 
and  education  must  provide  for  this  —  that  it  is  to  the  best 
advantage  of  every  citizen  to  be  vitally  associated  with  the 
state.  He  should  never  forget  that  railroads,  the  postal  service, 
telegraph  and  telephone  are  impossible  without  the  cooperation 
of  the  state.  He  should  be  taught  to  see  that  the  state  furnishes 
him  the  opportunity  of  educating  his  children,  protects  him 
against  the  ravages  of  epidemic  and  safeguards  his  rights. 
Everyone  must  become  familiar  with  the  idea  that  such  advan- 
tages require  personal  sacrifices  and  active  cooperation  in  the 
further  development  of  the  state. 

At  present  we  are  still  far  short  of  the  actualization  of  this 
synthesis.  In  fact  we  must  even  confess  that  the  consciousness 
of  its  necessity  is  as  yet  not  very  general.  The  state  and  the 
individual  still  largely  assume  a  hostile  attitude  towards  each 
other.  Government  officials  still  regard  the  individual  citizen 
largely  as  a  man  bent  on  resisting  authority,  evading  taxation, 
despoiling  the  public  treasurj^  and  securing  private  advantages 
at  the  expense  of  the  state.  The  motto  of  our  Crown  Prince 
Rudolph,  who  unfortunately  died  too  soon,  that  man  is  the 
most  valuable  asset  of  the  state,  is  still  far  from  receiving  ade- 
quate recognition  by  the  governments.  The  individual  like- 
wise frequently  merely  regards  the  state  as  a  superior  enemy 
who  extorts  taxes,  requires  military  service  and  interposes 
bureaucratic  obstacles  in  the  way  of  his  private  enterprizes. 

Here  the  schools,  and  especially  the  high  school,  and  their 
teachers  are  confronted  with  a  vast  problem,  fraught  with  much 
blessing.  We  must  cooperate  in  effecting  this  absolutely  nec- 
essary synthesis.     We  must  inspire  our  pupils  with  the  social 


176  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

spirit  and  at  the  same  time  train  them  to  preserve  their  personal 
independence,  their  personal  dignity.  It  is  for  us  to  hold  them 
to  a  strict  accounting  with  duty,  to  indelibly  implant  in 
their  minds  the  sense  of  moral  responsibility  and  at  the  same 
time  to  develop  their  individuality  and  not  be  satisfied  with 
anything  less  than  having  done  their  very  best.  We  must 
show  them  examples  and  if  possible  let  them  discover  for  them- 
selves that  there  can  be  no  more  intensive,  delightful  and  ef- 
fective development  of  personality  than  that  which  comes  from 
a  complete  dedication  of  one's  self,  together  with  all  his  powers, 
to  some  self-chosen  social  task. 

Examples  of  men  who  have  made  a  brilliant  success  of  this 
synthesis  of  personal  duty  and  personal  dignity  are  not  so  very 
numerous.  It  is  therefore  the  more  important  to  present  these 
few  as  clearly  as  possible  and  make  frequent  reference  to  them. 
Among  these  there  is  one  especially  with  whom  our  pupils  be- 
come acquainted  rather  early  in  their  course  and  concerning 
whom  they  later  on  have  opportunity  to  acquire  authoritative 
information.  I  have  in  mind  the  personality  of  Socrates.  He 
loyally  performed  his  duty  as  a  citizen,  going  thrice  to  the  front 
and  there  furnishing  his  man.  And  at  the  same  time  he  chose 
a  vocation,  in  harmony  with  his  individuality,  which  consisted 
in  arousing  the  moral  consciousness  of  his  fellow  citizens.  He 
remained  loyal  to  this  calling  and  went  down  to  death  for  his 
vocation.  Twice  the  state  charged  him  with  violations  of  the 
law  and  both  times  he  disproved  the  charge.  "  Neither  the 
threatening  mien  of  tyrants,  nor  the  passions  of  the  rabble, 
boding  him  ill  "  disturbed  the  stability  of  his  purpose.  In  his 
defense  he  gave  expression  to  words  that  deserve  reflection: 
"  Whenever  anyone  assumes  a  position  because  he  thinks  it  best 
or  whenever  his  superior  assigns  a  position,  there  he  must  perse- 
vere in  danger."  Here  we  have  the  synthesis  of  personal  duty 
and  personal  dignity  clearly  and  vividly  illustrated  and  ex- 
pressed by  a  man  who,  by  his  life  and  even  more  by  his  death, 
suffused  this  principle  with  vital  power.  In  the  lessons  on 
Plato's  Apology  I  have  repeatedly  taken  occasion,  in  connection 
with  this  passage,  to  discuss  man's  moral  problems  with  the 
senior  pupils,  and  invariably  found  them  participating  in  these 
explanations  with  lively  interest.  And  in  this  connection  we 
can  again  see  that  the  highest  demands  of  the  present  were 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  177 

anticipated  by  the  Greeks. 

We  have  thus  discovered  an  important  and  effective  principle 
for  our  ethico-social  problem.  Every  teacher  who  has  thor- 
oughly assimilated  this  line  of  thought  will  find  abundant  op- 
portunity in  teaching  to  instil  this  sentiment  in  the  pupils. 
And  better  still,  in  the  administration  of  discipline  he  will  be 
in  position  to  apply  the  method  of  the  "  pastor-"  rather  than 
that  of  the  "  policeman,"  as  Foerster  has  so  well  observed. 
Although  every  teacher  will  apply  this  principle  in  conformity 
with  his  own  individuality  many  will  perhaps  nevertheless 
welcome  a  few  suggestions  on  its  practical  application  in  the 
school. 

3.     The  Social  Spirit  in  School 

By  the  term  "  social  spirit  "  I  have  no  reference  whatever  to 
any  political  partizan  tendency  nor  even  any  specific  effort  to- 
wards the  reconstruction  of  the  existing  social  order.  It  is  im- 
portant to  emphasize  this  at  present  so  as  not  to  be  misunder- 
stood. The  social  spirit,  a  sum-total  judgment,  emotion-  and 
volition-impulses  which  arouse  our  consciousness  and  keep  it 
alert  to  the  fact  that  every  man  is  born  into  a  highly  developed 
social  order,  that  his  development  has  tremendous  advantages 
and  his  life's  meaning  is  immeasurably  enhanced  as  a  result 
of  this  fact,  and  that  he  is  therefore  called  upon  and  in  duty 
bound  to  contribute  to  the  continuance  and  further  development 
of  this  social  organism.  If  we  keep  constantly  in  mind  the 
fact  that  the  large  majority  of  our  pupils  are  destined,  even  by 
their  position  to  serve  the  community,  the  state,  no  one  will 
doubt  the  importance  of  our  being  concerned  to  effect  a  vigor- 
ous development  of  the  social  spirit  in  them. 

Modern  sociology  has  taught  us  that  the  individual's  depend- 
ence on  his  social  milieu  is  far  greater  than  was  previously  sup- 
posed. Not  only  are  volitional  tendencies  and  tastes  affected 
by  custom  and  fashion,  but  intellect  and  knowledge  are  largely 
products  of  social  cooperation.  There  are  many  at  the  present 
time  who  regard  this  fact  as  a  fetter,  a  drag  on  individual  de- 
velopment, as  we  have  just  now  indicated.  But  these  com- 
plaints do  not  banish  the  unalterable  fact  of  social  influence  from 
the  world.  It  is  useless  and  a  highly  injudicious  waste  of  energy 
to  be  constantly  kicking  against  the  social  pricks.     We  must 


178  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

live  in  a  social  group  and  we  must  therefore  acquire  the  char- 
acters which  facilitate  this  community  life  and  advance  our  in- 
terests. It  will  soon  appear  that  the  social  organism  which 
we  serve  by  no  means  merely  restrains  our  individual  develop- 
ment. We  shall  soon  discover  that  the  most  powerful  impulses, 
the  most  effective  enlargements  of  our  ego  proceed  from  this 
social  organism. 

Sociology  is  still  a  youthful  science.  It  has  thus  far  failed 
to  describe  adequately  the  relations  of  the  individual  to  the 
social  whole  of  which  he  is  a  part  and  reduce  them  to  systematic 
order.  We  are  consequently  not  in  position  to  submit  our  pro- 
posals for  the  cultivation  of  the  social  spirit  in  the  school  on 
the  basis  of  a  scientifically  elaborated  plan.  We  must  rather 
be  satisfied  to  lay  hold  of  those  factors  of  the  social  spirit  which 
manifest  themselves  clearly  in  the  practical  life  of  the  school. 

Even  the  ordinary  conduct  of  instruction  furnishes  consider- 
able opportunity  to  prepare  the  pupils  for  future  social  life: 
here  the  habit  of  industry,  which  we  have  previously  described 
as  an  important  pedagogic  principle,  must  be  emphasized  first 
of  all.  We  must  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  habit  of 
industry  is  an  exceedingly  important  part  of  social  education. 
The  appreciation  of  work,  as  we  have  repeatedly  observed,  is 
increasing  because  we  are  constantly  becoming  better  acquainted 
with  its  social  significance.  Social  evolution  is  unquestionably 
moving  in  the  direction  of  a  constantly  decreasing  toleration  of 
an  indolent  existence  which  even  Plato  declared  to  be  detesta- 
ble. (Rep.  VIII,  552.)  Hence  if  we  accustom  our  pupils 
each  day  to  regard  a  definite  amount  of  work  as  their  irremis- 
sible  duty  for  the  passing  day,  we  have  in  fact  breathed  into 
them  a  breath  of  the  social  spirit.  Goethe  once  answered  the 
question,  "What  constitutes  your  duty?"  as  follows:  "The 
demand  of  the  day."  But  this  simply  means  daily,  uniform 
occupation.  At  present  the  term  work  does  not  apply  to  every 
definite  occupation  which  likewise  intensely  engages  one's  pow- 
ers. Work  in  the  narrower  sense  implies  only  such  occupation 
as  produces  results  of  value  not  only  for  the  workman,  but 
likewise  for  others.  The  thought  of  those  who  need  or  expect 
the  product  of  labor  is  intimately  associated  with  the  nature  of 
work  and  this  clothes  labor  in  the  real  sense  of  the  term  with 
an  altruistic,  and  especially  a  social  character.     But  the  habit 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  179 

of  industry  is  likewise  of  great  value  to  man  as  an  individual. 
The  infant  organism  is  so  constituted  that  it  desires  the  exercise 
of  its  powers.  By  furnishing  this  impulse  an  opportunity  for 
exercise  in  the  proper  manner  we  produce  a  happy,  subjective 
self-gratification.  I  am  reminded  of  once  having  read  the 
following  in  one  of  Schiller's  letters:  "  But  the  best  of  all  is 
industry;  it  not  only  produces  the  means  of  livelihood,  it  even 
gives  life  its  real  value."  Hence  while  habituating  our  pupils 
to  work  we  are  furnishing  their  native  functional  need  the  op- 
portunity for  delightful  exercise  and  at  the  same  time  fit  them 
for  social  efficiency. 

The  cultivation  of  a  sense  of  order  and  punctuality  is  in- 
timately associated  with  the  habit  of  industry.  It  has  fre- 
quently been  observed  that  order  facilitates  every  effort.  But 
there  are  far  deeper  reasons  which  impel  us  to  inculcate  orderli- 
ness, and  the  duty  of  the  most  exact  precision  even  in  little  things 
as  well  as  the  punctual  meeting  of  appointments.  Modern  life 
is  constantly  developing  more  vocations  in  which  important  in- 
terests are  conditioned  on  minute,  even  the  most  detailed  pre- 
cision and  not  infrequently  it  involves  the  life  of  many  human 
beings.  We  need  only  refer  to  the  postal  and  railway  service, 
technical  engineering  in  the  building  of  tunnels  and  aqueducts, 
the  critical  operations  of  surgery,  the  prescription  of  medicine, 
etc.  The  slightest  error  here  is  frequently  fraught  with  the 
most  dire  consequences.  It  is  therefore  the  duty  of  social  edu- 
cation to  hold  the  pupils  of  the  higher  schools,  many  of  whom 
will  eventually  occupy  such  responsible  positions,  to  order, 
punctuality  and  precision  from  the  beginning.  The  reproach 
of  pedantry  frequently  charged  against  teachers  in  such  cases 
will,  in  view  of  the  vast  social  consequences  involved,  not  be 
regarded  as  a  reproach.  Knowledge  still  constitutes  the  vast 
significance  attributable  to  man  in  the  small  and  even  smallest 
things  of  life,  one  of  the  triumphs  of  modern  science  and  tech- 
nics. Devastating  epidemics  have  only  been  effectively  counter- 
acted since  man  has  come  to  recognize  their  causes  in  the  little 
bacilli  and  microbes.  Our  planet  has  acquired  its  present  form, 
not  by  mighty  revolutions,  as  was  once  supposed,  but  by  a  grad- 
ual condensation  and  cooling  process,  and  it  is  only  since  man 
has  learned  the  summation  of  these  minimal  changes  that  geol- 
ogy has  been  placed  on  a  scientific  basis.     The  larger  organism 


i8o  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

is  made  up  of  minute  cells  and  only  he  who  understands  the 
nature  of  the  cell  can  comprehend  the  structure  and  function 
of  the  higher  organs.  In  similar  fashion  also  the  commonplace 
in  civil  life,  the  ordinary,  the  minimal  attains  its  significance  and 
it  is  precisely  the  investigation  of  the  commonplace  that  has 
shed  the  clearest  light  on  the  past  epochs. 

We  are  right  in  line  with  the  spirit  of  modern  life  and  modern 
science  therefore,  if  we  cultivate  "  respect  for  small  things." 
The  teaching  of  mathematics  and  especially  philology  as  well 
as  the  administration  of  discipline  furnishes  opportunity  to  this 
end.  The  pupils  must  be  brought  to  see  what  greatness  is  fre- 
quently involved  in  loyalty  in  little  things.  The  will  for  the 
good  is  actually  good  and  really  strong  only  as  it  extends  to 
the  smallest  veins  and  receptacles  of  the  soul  and  completely  per- 
vades the  whole.  Any  one  who  is  tardy,  even  though  it  is  but 
for  a  single  time,  disturbs  the  teaching  and  he  has  thus  injured 
both  the  teacher  and  his  fellow  pupils.  We  should  understand 
how  to  influence  the  public  sentiment  of  the  class  in  this  direc- 
tion. An  excellent  method  of  accomplishing  this  is  to  enlist 
the  cooperation  of  the  pupils  in  the  maintenance  of  order  and 
cleanliness  in  the  classroom.  The  moment  they  become  guardi- 
ans their  native  impulse  towards  activity,  which  only  too  easily 
finds  vent  in  disturbances  and  vicious  pranks,  will  be  guided 
into  correct  channels  and  thus  contribute  to  subjective  invigora- 
tion.  The  teacher  himself  must  at  least  exert  an  influence  in 
this  direction  by  his  example.  If  he  always  begins  the  recita- 
tion promptly  on  time,  returns  written  exercises  at  the  proper 
time  and  exercises  care  in  his  corrections,  the  pupils  will  be  able 
to  see  in  him  their  example.  On  the  contrary  it  is  absolutely 
impossible  to  maintain  order  and  punctuality  among  others 
if  a  man  is  indifferent  to  such  things  himself,  and  thereby  shows 
that  he  has  not  yet  learned  the  real  greatness  of  being  faithful 
in  little  things. 

Work  and  order  succeed  only  under  intelligent  guidance. 
This  naturally  falls  to  the  duty  of  the  teacher.  It  goes  with- 
out saying  that  it  can  succeed  only  as  the  pupils  conform  with 
the  regulations  laid  down  by  the  teacher,  i.e.,  as  they  sponta- 
neously obey.  Obedience  has  from  the  earliest  times  been  re- 
garded as  the  first  duty  of  the  citizen  and  as  the  most  impor- 
tant duty  of  the  pupil.     It  would  be  superfluous  to  speak  in 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  i8i 

detail  of  training  to  obedience.  But  we  have  generally  been 
thinking,  in  connection  with  this  term,  of  a  purely  passive  obedi- 
ence, the  involuntar)'  subjection  to  the  will  of  the  stronger. 
This  form  of  obedience  is  likewise  indispensable,  but  only  as 
preliminaiy  to  the  higher  form.  If  obedience  is  not  to  operate 
as  a  mere  inhibiting  instrument,  which  suppresses  powerful 
emotions  and  thus  excites  opposition,  if  obedience  is  rather  to 
arouse  new  powers  and  inspire  the  social  spirit  it  must  rest  on 
an  entirely  different  foundation.  The  pupils  must  be  brought 
to  understand  the  profound  meaning  of  the  passage  from  the 
Iphigenia:  "And  obedient  I  always  felt  my  soul  most  beau- 
tifully free!  "  This  will  happen  only  as  the  teacher  understands 
so  to  enlist  the  interest  of  the  pupils  for  the  task  of  instruction 
that  it  becomes  a  common  interest  for  both  teacher  and  pupil, 
which  both  serve.  If  the  teacher  and  the  pupils  together  are 
interested  in  solving  this  somewhat  complicated  mathematical 
problem  by  the  simplest  and  neatest  possible  method,  that  the 
passage  of  a  foreign  language  immediately  under  discussion 
shall  be  really  well  translated  and  thoroughly  understood,  in- 
struction has  then  become  a  common  undertaking,  in  which  it 
is  assumed  that  one  leads  and  the  others  follow.  The  pupils 
know  full  well  from  their  games  that  things  run  smoothly  only 
as  the  self-appointed  leader,  who  well  understands  how  to 
regulate  and  guide,  has  command  and  all  the  others  strictly 
and  vigorously  obey.  We  must  seek  to  enlist  these  latent  pow- 
ers of  our  youth  for  our  cause.  The  teacher  has  been  trans- 
formed from  an  officially  appointed  master  into  an  eagerly 
and  spontaneously  recognized  leader  obedience  to  whom  has 
become  a  matter  of  course.  Obedience  regulated  in  this  fash- 
ion is  no  longer  inhibitive  or  repressive.  Rather  the  opposite. 
The  pupils  experience  a  sense  of  cooperation  in  their  obedience. 
This  kind  of  obedience  quickens  new  powers  within  their  souls 
and  the  genuine  social  spirit  is  thus  evolved. 

It  is  not  so  very  easy  to  offer  practical  suggestions  as  to  how 
this  transformation  may  be  brought  about.  It  bears  a  close 
analog}^  to  the  transference  of  intellectual  authority  to  imper- 
sonal science  previously  elaborated.  The  teacher  will  per- 
haps more  easily  discover  the  method  of  attaining  this  active 
and  spontaneous  obedience  if  he  recalls  the  lines  of  Antonio  in 
Goethe's  "^  Tasso  " : 


iSz  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

Es  ist  kein  schönerer  Anblick  in  der  Welt, 
Als  ein  Fürsten  sehn,  der  klug  regiert, 
Das  Reich  zu  sehn,  wo  jeder  stoltz  gehorcht; 
Wo  jeder  nur  sich  selbst  zu  dienen  glaubt, 
Weil  ihm  das  Rechte  nur  befohlen  wird. 

It  becomes  us  to  consider  precisely,  and  very  precisely,  what 
adjustments  we  have  to  make.  We  must  become  perfectly 
clear  in  our  own  minds,  on  all  that  pertains  to  this  matter,  by 
careful  preparation  even  to  the  smallest  detail.  We  can  only 
require  such  things  of  the  pupils  as  they  are  able  to  do,  and  we 
to  control.  But  once  an  order  is  given  the  only  thing  to  do  is 
to  insist  with  absolute  consistency  on  its  execution.  There 
must  be  no  evasion,  no  pretext,  no  forgetting  and  no  wearying. 
Foerster  speaks  of  a  "  Militarism  of  a  superior  order  "  which 
he  contrasts  with  the  frequently  customary  "  gruff  tone  of  the 
corporal."  We  can  appropriate  this  idea  because  we  are  trying 
to  develop  a  kind  of  "  tactical  consciousness  "  in  the  class,  which 
proceeds  from  a  strong  sense  of  solidarity  and  is  capable  of  in- 
creasing the  achievements  of  the  whole  class.  The  most  impor- 
tant point  here  moreover  is  this,  namely,  that  the  solidarity 
include  the  teacher  and  does  not  degenerate  into  a  conspiracy 
against  the  teacher.  Then  obedience  is  combined  with  subjec- 
tive liberty,  with  intensified  satisfaction  and  likewise  with  self- 
discipline. 

Industry,  the  sense  of  order,  punctuality  and  obedience  are 
without  doubt  social  virtues.  They  inspire  the  social  spirit  and 
prepare  men  for  community  life.  But  they  maintain  their  con- 
nection with  the  center  of  social  spirit  only  as  they  contribute 
to  the  quickening  and  strengthening  of  the  sense  of  individual 
moral  responsibility  among  the  pupils.  And  we  have  repeat- 
edly observed  that  the  secondary  school  should  train  its  pupils 
not  only  to  intellectual  independence,  but  likewise  to  moral  re- 
sponsibility (pp.  79,  83,  122).  It  is  of  the  nature  of  the  social 
spirit  that  whoever  is  inspired  by  it  is  conscious  of  the  whole 
of  which  he  is  a  part  in  all  his  actions.  He  never  forgets  to 
keep  in  mind  the  consequences  of  his  actions  and  especially  of 
his  omissions,  and  to  permit  these  ideas  to  constantly  determine 
his  conduct.  The  sense  of  responsibility,  in  the  truest  sense,  is 
social  in  its  nature  and  evolves  only  in  society  and  by  society. 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  183 

By  developing  the  habit  of  industry  and  punctuality,  by  the  vig- 
orous cultivation  of  obedience  in  spontaneous  subjection  we 
prepare  our  pupils  for  the  later  development  of  the  sense  of 
responsibility.  But  at  this  point  the  school  ought  to  do  more. 
We  should  furnish  the  pupils  opportimity,  even  during  the 
period  of  their  education,  to  experience  what  responsibility 
means,  we  should  permit  them  to  experience  this  emotion  often 
and  deeply. 

Under  the  present  method  of  discipline,  which  is  based  on 
the  authority  of  the  teacher  and  the  passive  obedience  of  the 
pupils  there  is  but  little  opportunity  for  this.  We  can  at  best 
assign  certain  pupils  definite  tasks  by  giving  them  charge  say  of 
keeping  the  blackboard  clean,  the  record  of  absences,  the  col- 
lection of  contributions.  But  this  reaches  only  a  few  and  be- 
yond this  the  required  services  are  so  easily  discharged  that 
they  contribute  very  little  to  the  quickening  of  the  sense  of 
moral  responsibility.  In  America  this  difficulty  has  been  recog- 
nized for  some  time  already,  giving  rise  to  the  idea  of  enlisting 
the  cooperation  of  the  pupils  in  the  maintenance  of  order  and 
also  to  secure  organized  cooperation  in  other  ways.  Efforts  in 
this  direction  have  also  been  made  in  Switzerland,  in  Germany 
and  in  Austria, —  but  on  a  far  more  modest  scale.  The  reader 
will  find  a  very  complete  summary  of  the  experiments  and 
achievements  in  this  line  in  Foerster  School  and  Character.  In 
supplementation  I  should  like  to  call  attention  to  Colin  A. 
Scott's  Social  Education.  I  unfortunately  have  no  practical 
experience  on  this  point.  I  can  therefore  only  express  my 
theoretical  conviction,  on  the  basis  of  psychological  and  socio- 
logical considerations  together  with  the  published  reports  of 
individual  teachers,  that  the  only  way  to  train  our  pupils  effec- 
tively to  moral  responsibility  is  by  this  method  of  "  student  self- 
government." 

Since,  as  I  have  observed,  I  have  no  practical  experience  in 
"  self-government,"  I  present  the  most  important  facts  from 
the  repeatedly  published  reports  of  individual  teachers  in  order 
that  the  m.ethod  of  applying  this  principle  in  the  practical  life 
of  the  school  may  be  apparent  to  teachers.  This  system  has 
been  most  extensively  applied  in  the  American  public  and  city 
schools  where  girls  and  boys  are  generally  taught  together. 
Whole  school  cities  and  even  school  states  have  been  organized 


184  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

whose  "  constitutions  "  rest  on  a  strictly  democratic  and  con- 
stitutional basis.  The  reports  are  unanimous  in  emphasizing  the 
brilliant  successs  of  the  system  even^vhere.  The  pupils  in  their 
own  "  assemblies  "  choose  a  number  of  "  officers  "  for  certain 
functions  and  work  out  "  school  laws  "  and  "  school  regula- 
tions." The  officers  chosen  on  their  own  initiative  provide  for 
order  and  cleanliness,  sit  in  judgment  on  such  as  have  violated 
the  law  and  work  for  the  maintenance  of  the  discipline,  which 
formerly  was  wholly  a  matter  of  the  teacher's  autocratic  re- 
quirement or  prohibition.  It  develops  a  "  public  sentiment  " 
among  the  pupils  which,  now  that  the  pupils  feel  themselves 
responsible  for  the  conduct  of  the  class,  reveals  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent spirit  than  formerly  under  the  despotic  regime.  The 
pupils  thus  find  opportunity  in  the  various  transactions  and 
discussions  to  practice  speaking  before  an  assembly  and  to  be- 
come acquainted  with  parliamentan^  procedure  in  general.  Re- 
ports show  repeatedly  that  in  schools  where  the  worst  careless- 
ness and  rudeness  formerly  prevailed,  you  now  find  sober  moral- 
ity and  enthusiastic  study. 

In  Switzerland  during  recent  years  —  chiefly  through  Foers- 
ter's  agitations  —  a  number  of  experiments  in  "  self-govern- 
ment "  have  been  made  in  the  public  schools.  The  teachers  are 
all  actually  astonished  at  the  result.  John  Hepp,  in  a  small 
volume  on  Pupil's  Self-Government  gives  the  following  account 
of  the  motives  which  led  him  to  introduce  the  new  system  and 
its  first  fruits:  "The  impudence,  carelessness,  disorderliness 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  fickleness,  instability  and  disinclination 
to  perform  required  work  neatly  and  conscientiously  on  the 
other  frequently  brought  me  to  desperation.  In  my  efforts  to 
preserve  order  in  the  classroom  I  sometimes  felt  more  like  a 
police  bailiff  than  a  teacher.  I  usually  kept  several  pupils  after 
school,  discussing  their  difficulties  with  them,  went  over  their 
work  in  their  presence  and  tried  to  train  the  good  people  to 
systematic  industry,  to  the  discharge  of  duty.  But  the  greater 
my  efforts,  the  less  seemed  to  be  the  result  —  at  least  gener- 
ally speaking.  In  my  desperation  I  unfortunately  resorted 
to  corporal  punishment  with  increasing  freauency.  In  this  way 
it  was  utterly  impossible  for  the  pupils  to  love  school.  I  felt 
a  hidden  opposition  to  my  rigorous  discipline  beginning  to  germi- 
nate, after  the  fashion  of  an  uncanny  resistance.     I  saw  clearly 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  185 

that  if  matters  continued  as  they  were  the  best  thinking  boys 
would  likewise  join  in  with  the  dissatisfied  ones.  The  fault 
lay  not  alone  with  the  pupils,  but  even  more  largely  with  me 
and  this  naturally  made  me  ill-humored  in  the  highest  degree. 
I  said  to  myself,  if  you  do  not  gain  their  confidence,  you  can- 
not teach  them." 

The  writer  then  tells  how,  by  frequent  visitation  of  the 
pupils'  parents  he  acquired  an  insight  into  their  home  en- 
vironment and  thus  learned  to  judge  with  more  moderation. 
He  then  continues:  "  I  had  long  been  acquainted  with  the 
American  ideas  through  Foerster's  Jugendlehre.  Inasmuch  as 
I  had  made  more  or  less  of  a  fiasco  of  my  disciplinary  efforts 
hitherto,  I  resolved  to  make  a  trial  of  governing  according  to  the 
example  set  by  the  new  world.  Until  then  the  '  School  city  ' 
system  had  impressed  me  most  favorably  on  account  of  the  fact 
that  I  was  convinced  that  it  was  better  adapted  than  our  school 
system  to  the  training  of  citizens  to  whose  capacity  of  judgment 
democracy  could  commit  far-reaching  decisions.  I  resolved 
therefore  to  make  my  pupils  co-partners,  to  rule  with  them 
rather  than  over  them.  I  considered  how  it  might  be  possible, 
with  the  help  of  the  better  element  of  the  class,  to  implant  a 
public  sentiment,  to  transform  the  energies,  which  had  been 
making  themselves  so  uncomfortably  perceptible  in  the  form 
of  resistance  to  all  coercion,  into  useful,  positive  achievements 
of  helpfulness.  Nowhere  could  I  find  any  special  guidance. 
Insuperable  difficulties  seemed  to  thwart  my  efforts.  I  ac- 
cordingly determined  to  first  undertake  an  experiment  cau- 
tiously on  a  small  scale,  in  order  that  I  might  eventually  enlarge 
upon  it  on  the  basis  of  my  experiences.  I  began  with  the  in- 
significant little  offices  in  vogue  in  every  school ;  the  clean- 
ing of  the  blackboard,  the  handing  out  and  collecting  of  papers, 
portfolios,  etc.  According  to  the  prevailing  custom  there  was 
one  paper-collector  and  one  board-cleaner  appointed  for  each 
three  rows  of  seats.  The  class  under  my  direction  first  of 
all  proposed  a  schedule  of  duties  for  these  offices.  Later  on 
the  pupils  made  nominations  and  they  were  given  the  privilege 
of  electing  respectively  three  board-cleaners  and  three  paper  col- 
lectors by  the  method  of  a  majority  vote.  On  this  occasion 
I  made  the  interesting  observation  that  no  one  was  chosen  whom 
I  had  hitherto  entrusted  with  the  performance  of  all  sorts  of 


1 86  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

commissions  and  errands.  They  were  of  course  nominated, 
but  brilliantly  defeated.  The  term  of  office  was  likewise,  after 
brief  debate,  fixed  at  four  weeks  by  the  general  assembly. 
That  those  who  were  elected  by  their  comrades  regarded  it  as  an 
honor  to  discharge  the  duties  entrusted  to  them  conscientiously, 
is  self-evident.  At  the  end  of  the  month  we  held  a  brief  review 
of  the  services  of  the  six  officers  whose  term  had  expired.  The 
pupils  were  required  to  make  criticisms.  In  general  the  views 
of  the  class  corresponded  with  my  own.  Any  one  who  has 
made  similar  experiments  will  doubtless  have  observed  that, 
generally  speaking,  the  pupils  criticise  more  severely  than  the 
teacher.  But  there  are  always  a  number  of  good-hearted 
pupils  who  reject  unjust  charges  brought  against  their  com- 
rades without  the  necessary  interposition  of  the  teacher.  I  then 
called  their  attention  to  other  matters  pertaining  to  the  external 
order  of  the  school  of  which  they  might  actually  relieve  me ;  and 
further  that  they  should  cooperate  with  me  in  making  our 
class  a  typical  example  of  good  order.  But  I  guarded  against 
offering  suggestions.  They  must  work  out  their  own  ideas  and 
the  ways  and  means  of  putting  them  into  execution." 

The  writer  goes  on  to  tell  of  the  inventiveness  frequently  man- 
ifested by  the  boys  in  working  out  new  methods  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  their  own  regulations.  They  created  the  office  of 
"  window-opener "  and  the  time-consuming  and  responsible 
office  of  "  chest-keeper  "  whose  business  required  him  to  care 
for  and  clean  the  drawing  materials.  Committees  of  cleanli- 
ness and  order  were  appointed  who  had  to  see  to  it  that  every 
pupil  came  to  school  cleanly  washed  and  that  they  all  clean  their 
shoes  before  entering  the  room.  Hepp  gives  a  very  instructive 
illustration  of  the  disciplinary  effect  of  "  self-government " 
introduced  on  a  modest  scale.  "  Either  through  thoughtless- 
ness or  as  a  joke,  I  do  not  know  which,  a  terribly  dirty  fellow 
was  once  nominated  for  me  for  an  appointment  on  the  cleanli- 
ness and  good  order  committee  and  even  elected  to  the  delight 
of  everybody.  And  behold,  on  the  following  day  he  not  only 
arrived  at  school  on  time,  which  had  previously  been  a  rare 
occurrence,  but  his  mother  had  cut  his  hair  which  in  its  ob- 
stinacy had  always  given  him  an  unkempt  appearance.  On 
the  following  day  he  brought  a  roll  of  towel  paper  and  put  it 
at  its  proper  place.     And  even  before  the  end  of  the  week  I 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  187 

observed  that  he  carried  a  quite  small  piece  of  soap  with  him. 
He  evidently  felt  that  as  a  member  of  the  committee  he  must 
turn  everything  to  account  if  he  wished  any  further  advance  in 
public  esteem.  At  the  end  of  the  four  weeks  the  class  ex- 
pressly acknowledged  that  N.  had  manifested  remarkable  im- 
provement, had  shown  himself  worthy  of  his  office  and  dis- 
charged his  duties  faithfully.  I  was  particularly  pleased  with 
the  result  because  it  taught  me  how  to  influence  the  fellow. 
Without  this  assistance  from  his  comrades  I  could  in  all  prob- 
ability never  have  approached  him.  Is  not  a  single  result  like 
this  already  of  infinite  value?  We  must  preach  morality  less, 
and  instead  open  more  paths  for  spontaneous  self-activity  in  the 
sphere  of  morals.     This  creates  life,  this  develops  moral  power." 

A  matter  of  peculiar  significance  in  "  self-government  "  is 
the  "  public  sentiment  "  among  the  pupils  to  which  it  everywhere 
gives  rise.  Our  author  likewise  furnishes  a  typical  illustration 
of  this  point.  "  The  seriousness  with  which  the  pupils  regard 
the  *  laws  '  of  their  own  making  is  revealed  in  an  event  which 
happened  recently.  As  I  was  about  to  begin  school  I  observed 
a  circle  of  pupils  gathered  about  a  certain  F.  who  didn't  know 
the  first  thing  of  obedience,  and  of  duty  scarcely  even  the  name. 
Upon  inquiry  I  discovered  that  he  had  declined  to  comply  with 
the  order  of  the  committee,  to  wash  his  hands.  He  could  re- 
sume his  place  as  soon  as  he  would  obey.  '  Public  opinion,'  as 
the  Americans  term  it,  was  against  him  and  he  had  to  yield. 
It  is  evident  that  this  '  public  sentiment '  greatly  simplifies  the 
administration  of  discipline  for  the  teacher.  The  important 
thing  is  that  by  the  method  here  described  the  truth  of  the  prin- 
ciple '  every  privilege  involves  duties  and  begets  duties,  respon- 
sibility '  becomes  clear  to  the  pupils  and  is  transformed  into 
flesh  and  blood  by  an  object  lesson.  It  is  an  object  lesson  in 
democracy  on  a  small  scale.  Of  greater  value  than  the  knowl- 
edge of  laws  is  the  community  spirit,  the  sense  of  co-responsi- 
bility for  one's  neighbor." 

This  report,  which  must  impress  every  one  familiar  with 
school  life  with  its  absolute  sincerity,  by  its  clear  statement 
illustrated  by  so  many  details  and  characteristic  experiences, 
shows  how  much  more  effectively  pupils  can  be  trained  to  re- 
sponsibility by  self-government.  This  system  has  thus  far  been 
chiefly  applied  to  the  public  schools.     But  there  can  be  no  doubt 


1 88  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

that  the  high  school,  whose  peculiar  task  consists  in  developing 
intellectual  independence  and  moral  responsibility,  is  the  place 
where  self-government  should  be  cultivated  most  intensively. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  experiments  with  this  system  have  here  and 
there  already  been  made,  which  furnish  decided  encouragment 
to  its  continuance  and  further  development.  Foerster  reports 
that  institutions  of  this  sort  have  recently  been  introduced  in 
the  gymnasiums  of  the  Rhine  Province.  The  essential  feature 
there  consists  in  the  fact  that  the  pupils  elect  a  class  committee 
which  looks  after  the  maintenance  of  order  and  good  conduct. 
These  committees  are  associated  with  the  class  president  and 
the  principal  and  may  bring  the  wishes  of  the  pupils  to  their 
attention.  Teachers  and  principals  are  quite  generally  well 
pleased  with  the  results.  Foerster  quotes  the  following  pas- 
sages from  a  report  of  g3'mnasium-director  Prof.  Siebourg  in 
Miinchen-Gladbach :  "  We  think  our  organization  appeals  far 
more  strongly  to  noble  class  and  school  spirit  and  the  sense  of 
honor,  which  as  a  rule  is  far  more  highly  developed  and  use- 
ful among  our  German  youth  than  the  purely  penal-pedagogy 
is  willing  to  admit.  And  we  hope  by  this  method  to  acquire 
a  powerful  support  in  the  battle  against  dishonesty,  which  among 
pupils  and  unfortunately  even  in  the  homes  of  many  parents, 
is  regarded  as  an  entirely  proper  weapon  of  defense.  If  the 
3'oung  man  knows  that  he  can  express  his  grievance  without 
hesitation  and  that  a  well-founded  complaint  will  receive  a 
ready  hearing,  he  will  be  more  likely  to  see  how  much  better 
and  more  respectable  this  method  of  procedure  is  than  the 
method  of  deceit.  The  institution  is  educative  at  least  for  all 
the  pupils  who  hold  an  office  of  honor.  And  since  this  can 
change  quite  a  number  may  hold  office  in  the  course  of  the 
school  period.  They  learn  to  understand  what  it  means  to 
bear  responsibility  for  something  for  which  in  our  day  so  few 
men  show  any  inclination  and  disposition.  They  must  see  to 
it  that  their  orders  are  obeyed  and  any  one  who  has  once  ex- 
perienced the  fact  that  it  is  by  no  means  an  easy  task  to  issue 
orders  will  far  more  readily  submit  thereafter.  And  finally 
discipline  which,  for  the  great  masses  of  mankind,  was  hitherto 
mere  command  and  coercion  from  above,  becomes  a  matter  of 
spontaneous  obedience,  and  the  anticipation  that  rich  blessings 
may  flow  from  this  source  upon  the  whole  after  life  is  certainly 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  189 

justified. 

In  Austrian  institutions  likewise  two  of  these  experiments  have 
become  known.  Professor  Prodinger  organized  a  "  School 
community  "  in  Pola  under  peculiarly  difficult  circumstances. 
Since  the  pupils  represented  different  nationalities  ( Italians, 
Germans,  Slavs)  he  had  first  to  solve  the  "  nationality  prob- 
lem." Prodinger  succeeded  in  effecting  a  unified  organization 
by  a  system  of  national  representation  on  the  pupil-committees, 
and  in  this  way  the  "  school  community  "  got  along  all  right 
like  every  place  else.  Prodinger  likewise  emphasizes  in  his  re- 
port that  the  sense  of  honor  and  responsibility  is  elevated  by 
self-government  and  moral  training  is  thus  advanced.  We  shall 
quote  several  passages  from  his  reports  which  are  characterized 
by  peculiar  impressiveness  and  thorough  enthusiasm  for  the  new 
method.  "  But  if  order  is  really  the  foundation  principle  of 
all  life,  then  the  external  material  life  dare  not  alone  furnish 
the  basis  of  its  laws,  it  must  rather  be  subordinated  to  the  spir- 
itual life  of  man,  his  spiritual  nature,  its  ultimate  issue  again 
be  under  the  guidance  and  determination  of  spirit,  of  ideas. 
And  if  man  is  really  to  maintain  order  and  be  able  to  force  the 
enemies  within  his  own  bosom  into  subjection,  he  must  be 
master  of  himself.  But  self-mastery  requires  strength  of  will, 
capable  of  vanquishing  the  enticements  to  evil.  This  will  must 
be  acquired,  otherwise  even  the  best  doctrines  remain  but  empty 
words.  But  here  we  are  confronted  by  a  remarkable  phenom- 
enon. In  our  present  school  system  there  is  absolutely  no 
possibility  of  working  towards  this  end.  Every  opportunity, 
where  youth  might  strengthen  their  will  and  actually  develop 
self-mastery,  is  taken  away  from  them.  Youth  has  no  re- 
sponsibility. Are  matters  going  crooked  or  straight,  is  there 
order  or  not,  this  does  not  concern  them ;  this  belongs  to  the  head 
of  the  institution  and  the  corps  of  teachers;  it  is  their  business 
to  see  to  it;  youth,  under  existing  conditions,  simply  see  to  it  that 
there  is  as  much  confusion  as  possible.  Should  our  pupils  act 
differently?  Why?  Whether  order  prevails  or  not,  they 
haven't  the  least  share  in  it ;  on  the  contrarj'  it  furnishes  them 
rare  fun  to  aggravate  the  gentlemen  who  conduct  the  investi- 
gation by  cunningly  contrived  mischief.  But  matters  would 
be  quite  different  if  the  pupils  were  participants  in  the  main- 
tenance of  order,  if  they  were  co-responsible.     Then  they  have 


I90  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

no  reason  any  longer  to  stir  up  mischief,  they  must  rather  aspire 
towards  the  reahzation  of  the  greatest  possible  degree  of  peace." 

The  pupils  who  are  actually  beguiled  into  inciting  mischief  by 
the  absolutistic  system  are  then  required  to  reflect  a  little  on 
the  subject  of  order  and  to  take  a  little  more  account  of  their 
sins  of  commission  and  omission  than  formerly.  By  the  fact 
that  they  must  themselves  provide  for  order,  either  as  director, 
or  as  ordinary  school  citizen,  they  get  abundant  opportunity  to 
practice  self-mastery  and  likewise  to  direct  others  to  do  so. 
If  the  directors  or  superintendents  perform  their  proper  service 
they  naturally  dare  not  participate  in  mischievous  tricks,  but 
govern  and  conduct  themselves  properly  —  even  for  the  sake 
of  their  dignity  —  and  the  others  who  might  still  be  disposed 
to  various  follies,  do  not  wish  to  encumber  the  service  of  their 
comrades  and  therefore  avoid  many  an  act  they  would  otherwise 
have  done.  Let  no  one  object  that  pupils  even  at  present 
have  sufficient  opportunity  for  self-mastery  in  school ;  they  must 
sit  quietly  during  school  hours,  they  must  get  their  lessons  even  if 
they  are  perhaps  eager  for  play  or  to  take  a  walk,  they  dare  not 
smoke,  nor  visit  saloons,  etc.  Very  well,  but  all  this  simply 
forces  young  people  into  passivity  and  completely  suppresses 
their  native  impulse  towards  exercise,  and  it  is  just  this  that 
a  rational  system  of  education  should  take  into  account  and 
wisely  utilize  youth's  desire  for  exercise.  Here,  in  the  mainte- 
nance of  order,  youth  is  at  once  offered  a  vast  field  for  its  lust  for 
activity;  here  plans  must  be  worked  out  for  the  realization  of 
prescribed  requirements,  to  respect  rights  on  every  hand,  con- 
ducting prescribed  inspections,  leading  the  erring  to  better  con- 
duct, to  counsel  with  the  officer  in  charge  concerning  this  and 
that  feature  of  the  administration  and  many  more  things  of 
like  character.  Here  the  young  man,  who  finds  himself  ap- 
pointed to  a  responsible  position,  learns  to  govern  himself,  he 
perceives  that,  in  order  to  be  somebody  and  hold  his  respect,  he 
dare  not  permit  himself  to  be  plunged  into  ill-considered  acts, 
that  he  must  rather  have  himself  under  complete  control.  Just 
imagine  a  child  under  such  training  for  a  period  of  eight  or 
twelve  years  —  is  it  conceivable  that  this  school  of  character 
will  leave  no  impression  on  young  people?  " 

"  We  have  hitherto  not  been  accustomed  to  contemplate  the 
problem  of  discipline  from  this  angle;  we  have  regarded  the 


I 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  191 

maintenance  of  discipline  as  a  matter  that  concerns  the  teachers 
and  about  which  the  pupils  need  not  bother  themselves.  But 
a  genuine  moral  character  can  only  unfold  spontaneously,  i.e., 
under  conditions  which  simply  exercises  sufficient  restraint  to 
permit  the  completest  possible  development  under  every  cir- 
cumstance. Inasmuch  as  the  antiquated  despotic  school  system 
however  proceeds  on  the  principle  of  suppressing  all  sponta- 
neity, and  therefore  prevents  any  genuine  moral  training,  it  must 
be  set  aside  and  supplanted  by  the  best  system  thus  far  devised, 
the  constitutional  school  community.  I  need  not  as  a  matter 
of  course  speak  in  detail  of  the  more  palpable  matters,  the  ad- 
ditional advantages  resulting  from  the  pupils  governing  them- 
selves. They  become  more  independent,  more  conscious  of 
their  dignity,  acquire  a  finer  sense  of  honor  and  justice,  learn 
to  associate  with  people,  are  obliged  to  acquire  a  courteous  but 
definite  conduct,  accustom  themselves  to  surveying  the  whole 
situation,  are  thus  preserved  from  narrow-minded  pedantry, 
and  inasmuch  as  they  wish  to  train  or  guide  themselves  and 
others  they  must  soon  begin  to  reflect  on  the  principles  of  peda- 
gogic method,  to  say  nothing  of  other  advantages  of  a  more 
technical  administrative  nature.  And  the  teaching  profession 
saves  time  by  this  system,  can  save  its  energies  more  than 
formerly,  gets  into  closer  touch  with  the  pupils,  gains  their 
confidence  and  love,  and  the  school,  previously  a  nerve-racking 
institution,  becomes  a  place  of  happy  and  delightful  occupation. 
If  the  teaching  profession  understands  its  advantages,  they  must 
inevitably  want  to  introduce  the  school  community." 

We  have  quoted  the  reports  of  educators  in  considerable  de- 
tail in  order  that  the  reader  might  see  that  we  are  not  discuss- 
ing speculative,  theoretical  principles,  but  concrete  institutions 
which  are  practical  and  feasible.  The  sj^stem  moreover  seems 
to  me  to  be  capable  of  still  further  development.  Self-govern- 
ment is  by  no  means  necessarily  limited  to  matters  of  external 
discipline.  Colin  A.  Scott,  in  his  book  previously  cited,  gives 
very  instructive  illustrations  of  the  effectiveness  of  the  spon- 
taneous cooperation  of  the  pupils  for  scientific,  technical  and 
even  aesthetic  training.  At  any  rate  a  method  has  here  been 
discovered  by  which  the  social  spirit  can  be  cultivated  in  school 
in  an  entirely  different  way  and  far  more  intensively  than  was 
possible  hitherto.     The  meaning  of  work,  of  order  and  punctu- 


192  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

ality,  genuine,  spontaneous  obedience,  and  more  especially  the 
sense  and  clear  conception  of  moral  responsibility  will  develop 
quite  differently  if  the  strong  native  impulse  towards  exercise 
characteristic  of  youth  is  directed  into  the  proper  channels, 
and  if  it  is  possible  to  quicken  the  vital  psychical  energies  of 
the  pupils  and  enlist  them  in  the  service  of  society  at  large, 
which  is  finally  furnished  for  youth  at  school  in  which  it  is  being 
trained. 

Self-government  is  well  adapted  moreover,  even  if  one  only 
takes  account  of  the  experiments  and  results  thus  far  published, 
to  contribute  to  the  solution  of  a  higher  pedagogic  problem. 
Tlie  first  and  most  evident  effect  of  the  new  system  consists 
in  the  fact  that  it  inspires  the  pupils  with  the  social  spirit, 
breathes  into  their  soul  the  sense  of  participation  in  the  social 
whole  and  thus  disciplines  them  to  service,  to  spontaneous  sub- 
ordination and  responsibility.  But  at  the  same  time  with  these 
things  a  sense  of  superior  obligation,  a  consciousness  of  in- 
dividual dignity  must  develop  in  the  pupils  who  are  elected  to  the 
various  offices  which  must  inevitably  contribute  towards  mak- 
ing these  j'oung  people  self-assured,  ambitious,  personalities  who 
are  practiced  in  self-command.  By  devoting  themselves  to  a 
social  function  which  has  been  entrusted  to  them  and  enthusi- 
astically assumed  on  their  part,  they  become  stronger  mentally, 
spiritually  more  independent  and  gradually  acquire  possession 
of  what  the  Stoic  sages  and  what  Schiller  justly  described  as 
the  highest  good  of  man,  the  possession  of  inner  freedom.  But 
inner  freedom  is  nothing  else  than  the  consciousness  that  man 
is  not  merely  a  means,  but  that  he  is  likewise  an  end  in  him- 
self, and  that  for  him  there  is  no  higher  ambition  than  the  pres- 
ervation and  enhancement  of  his  personal  dignity.  Self-gov- 
ernment is  therefore  the  method  by  which  to  quicken  not  only 
the  appreciation  of  personal  obligation,  but  likewise  the  sense  of 
personal  dignity.  These  two  moral  requirements,  which  we 
have  previously  elaborated,  are  in  fact  not  antitheses,  but  inti- 
mately related  and  mutually  reciprocal.  The  sense  of  partici- 
pation in  a  social  body  and  the  requirements  consequent  there- 
upon create  a  point  of  concentration  in  every  individual  which 
becomes  a  new  spiritual  source  of  energy  and  combines  the  in- 
dividual ambitions  and  moods  into  a  uniform  whole.  Per- 
sonality thus  invigorated  constantly  makes  higher  demands  of 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  193 

itself,  expands  the  circle  of  duties  and  elevates  the  moral  level 
of  mankind.  Personal  obligation  and  personal  dignity  are  two 
distinct  paths  to  one  and  the  same  goal,  and  this  goal  is  nothing 
less  than  the  constant  broader  and  higher  evolution  of  the  hu- 
man race. 

The  high  school  must  not  only  show  its  pupils  both  these  ways, 
but  must  likewise  lead  and  accompany  them  for  a  considerable 
distance  on  both.  In  the  foregoing  we  have  tried  to  show  that 
the  school  is  capable  of  developing  social  sentiment,  quicken- 
ing the  consciousness  of  duty  and  possibly,  by  enlisting  the 
active  cooperation  of  the  pupils,  habituate  them  to  spontaneous 
subordination  and  train  them  to  responsibility.  We  shall  now 
address  ourselves  to  the  higher  and  more  difficult  problem  which 
consists  in  bringing  to  maturity  in  each  incidivual  pupil  the 
thought  that  every  human  being  is  designed  to  preserve  the 
dignity  of  the  human  race  in  his  own  person  by  developing  his 
natural  endowments  to  their  highest  powers,  by  constant  self 
discipline,  doing  his  best,  elevating  his  ambitions  and  thus 
developing  himself  into  a  being  which  is  a  joy  unto  itself  and  a 
joy  to  others. 

4.     The   Cultivation   of   Personal   Dignity 

Training  to  industrj^  orderliness  and  punctuality,  to  obedi- 
ence and  responsibility,  in  short  everything  which  we  have 
treated  under  the  watchword  "  social  spirit,"  these  are  matters 
with  which  we  older  teachers  have  long  been  familiar.  I 
presume  therefore  that  even  those  of  my  colleagues  who  for 
the  present  have  not  yet  been  able  to  favor  the  introduction  of 
the  "  school  community  "  and  the  S3'stem  of  pupils'  self-govern- 
ment, will  agree  with  what  I  have  said  on  these  points.  On 
the  other  hand  however  the  cultivation  of  individuality,  the 
heightening  of  self-consciousness,  discipline  in  criticism  is 
something  new.  It  is  our  educational  reformers  that  have  in- 
cluded these  requirements  in  their  program  and  I  may  there- 
fore hope  that  I  shall  here  perhaps  meet  with  fuller  apprecia- 
tion among  the  younger  members  of  the  teaching  profession. 
It  is  part  of  the  present  characteristic  trend  towards  the  culture 
of  personality  that  individualization  in  education  is  increas- 
ingly   demanded.     Our   present    day   youth   is   aware    of    this 


194  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

fact  and  is  strongly  influenced  thereby.  Children  to-day  no 
longer  show  the  gratitude,  are  no  longer  so  submissive  as  they 
were  in  the  days  of  our  childhood.  They  see  full  well  that 
the  parents  turn  everything  to  account  in  order  to  make  their 
life  more  healthful,  more  pleasant  and  richer  in  content.  Pres- 
ent day  youth  has  come  to  regard  itself  as  an  end  in  itself  and 
parents  as  a  more  or  less  useful  means,  whose  purpose  of  exist- 
ence is  to  help  the  children  to  the  realization  of  their  indi- 
viduality. 

These  dominating  tendencies  of  youth  in  combination  with 
other  factors  frequently  produce  a  rare  fruitage.  According 
to  my  judgment  they  have  led  to  an  unhealthy  over-stimulation 
of  various  kinds  of  sport  and  are  especially  prominent  in  mod- 
ern aestheticism.  Here  the  artistic  portrayal  of  all  action  and 
the  aesthetic  appreciation  of  the  same  is  looked  upon  as  the 
central  feature  of  life,  that  all  other  problems  are  insignificant 
by  comparison  and  the  highest  social  requirements  are  felt  to  be 
an  infringement  on  personal  liberty,  an  unbearable  vexation.  I 
certainly  set  a  high  value  on  aesthetic  training  and  have  strongly 
advocated  above  that  this  source  of  happiness  should  be  opened 
to  our  youth  in  liberal  measure.  But  notwithstanding  this 
modern  aestheticism  does  not  suit  my  taste.  It  seems  to  me  to 
be  characterized  by  a  desire  for  striking  effects  which  are  pro- 
duced by  hyper-stimulation  of  the  nerves,  it  seems  to  me  more 
like  cheap  originality  than  really  profound  artistic  need.  And 
it  is  for  this  reason  that  I  regard  it  a  pressing  need  that  our 
present  day  youth  be  inspired  with  the  social  spirit  so  as  to 
counteract  the  misconceived  culture  of  personality  which  not 
infrequently  degenerates  into  ego-culture.  But  notwithstand- 
ing this  the  individualistic  tendencies  just  described  may  be 
employed  with  splendid  pedagogic  effect.  If  the  modern  youth 
brings  an  excess  of  self-consciousness  and  self-suflficiency  along 
to  school,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  we  must  suppress  these 
impulses.  We  should  rather  urge  these  inner  spiritual  energies 
to  provide  themselves  an  appropriate  sphere  of  activity  and 
see  to  it  that  they  do  not  shoot  out  into  antisocial  egoism  or 
moody  aestheticism,  but  give  them  the  tendency  which  leads  to 
the  consciousness  of  personal  dignity  and  its  correlative  obliga- 
tions. It  is  just  as  impossible  here  as  in  the  previous  section 
to  elaborate  the  pedagogic  effects  in  this  sense  with  systematic 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  195 

adequacy.  I  must  therefore  here  again  confine  myself  to 
several  important  factors  which  are  likewise  feasible  in  prac- 
tical pedagogics. 

First  of  all  ever>^  teacher  can  contribute  to  the  cultivation  of 
personal  dignity  in  a  number  of  apparently  insignificant  ex- 
ternalities in  his  conduct  towards  his  pupils.  If  a  man  makes 
a  practice  of  being  friendly  with  his  pupils  individually  and 
courteous  with  the  class  as  a  whole,  if  he  never  lets  slip  the  call- 
ing of  such  zoological  titles  as  ox,  donkey,  hog,  rhinoceros,  even 
in  anger,  if  he  furthermore  gives  the  pupils  opportunity,  even 
quite  early  in  their  course,  to  express  their  own  unrestrained 
opinion,  and  occasionally  even  asks  them  for  a  criticism  of  the 
teacher's  expressed  views,  he  has  already  done  much  towards 
the  uplift  of  their  personal  dignity.  I  can  cite  several  personal 
experiences  in  support  of  this.  I  have  made  it  a  practice  in  all 
my  higher  classes,  when  the  pupils  arose  upon  my  entering  the 
room,  to  invite  them  to  take  a  seat  with  a  courteous  "  please 
be  seated."  Always  therefore,  when  I  met  the  class  for  the 
first  time  I  could  read  pleased  astonishment  on  the  countenances 
of  the  pupils.  They  had  evidently  not  been  accustomed  to 
courteous  treatment  and  felt  flattered  and  elevated  by  the 
strange  accent.  My  frequent  requests  for  criticism  were  even 
far  more  efFective.  I  still  recall  quite  vividly  how  a  member 
of  a  senior  class  which  I  had  in  psycholog}%  called  attention 
to  the  fact  in  his  farewell  address,  that  he  owed  me  a  spe- 
cial debt  of  gratitude  for  the  privilege  of  expressing  their 
opinions  freely.  We  see  therefore  that  young  people  have  a 
keen  sense  of  appreciation  when  the  teacher  reveals  a  certain 
degree  of  respect  for  the  personality  of  each  pupil  in  his  w^hole 
attitude  and  demeanor  towards  them.  Especially  in  the  higher 
classes  it  is  of  great  advantage  to  treat  the  pupils  like  gentlemen. 
Ever}^  teacher  will  find  that  these  apparently  insignificant  ex- 
ternals pave  the  way  for  continuing  to  a  more  intensive  and 
deeper  cultivation  of  personal  dignity. 

To  this  end,  as  a  beginning,  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  at 
the  same  time  most  important  problems  of  the  teacher  furnishes 
opportunity.  I  refer  to  training  in  truthfulness.  Foerster  fur- 
nishes suggestions  at  once  profound  and  concrete  in  his 
JugendlehrCj  School  and  Character  and  especially  in  the  book  on 
Lebensführung.     He  first  emphatically  verifies  the  fact,  which 


196  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

is  unfortunately  incontestable,  that  the  method  of  instruction 
and  the  administration  of  discipline  in  the  public  school  betrays, 
and  sometimes  even  compels,  the  pupils  to  utilize  the  whole 
of  their  inventive  genius  in  contriving  the  most  plausible  lies. 
He  then  offers  suggestions  how  a  man  can,  by  the  serious  dis- 
cussion of  several  concrete  cases  of  student  life,  gradually  bring 
the  pupils  to  the  point  of  utilizing  their  whole  curiosity  and 
genius,  which  they  otheru-ise  devote  to  contriving  appropriate 
lies,  in  eliciting  a  mode  of  procedure  in  exceptionally  difficult 
cases  so  as  to  tell  the  truth  and  at  the  same  time  avoid  unpleasi- 
ant  situations.^  Foerster  further  refers  to  the  necessity  of  in- 
vestigating the  various  psychological  causes  of  school  lies  and 
then  urges  strongly  that  one  should  try  to  train  to  absolute  truth- 
fulness by  an  appeal  to  the  sense  of  honor  and  the  heroic  in 
child  nature,  and  to  inculcate  the  principle  in  the  Kantian  sense 
that  a  lie  is  not  permissible  and  guiltless  under  any  conditions, 
under  any  circumstances.     He  calls  the  attention  of  his  pupils 

1  The  following  conversation  reported  by  Foerster  {School  and  Char- 
acter) is  of  vital  interest  to  all  teachers:  "The  teacher  sees  a  caricature 
on  the  board  and  asks  one  of  the  pupils:  'Who  has  drawn  it?'  The 
pupil  knows  who  did  it.  Should  he  now  say,  '  I  do  not  know,'  or 
should  he  expose  the  guilty  party?  Should  he  be  loyal  to  his  friends 
or  obedient  to  his  teacher?  First  of  all  an  answer  to  the  last  ques- 
tion is  considered.  The  result  was  interesting.  The  boys  almost  unan- 
imously agreed  that  one  should  deny  having  knowledge  of  the  identity 
of  the  one  who  did  it;  the  girls  practically  all  agreed  that  obedience 
was  the  proper  course.  I  then  referred  to  the  fact  that  both  solutions  in 
the  first  place  were  one-sided.  One  solution  regards  only  the  teacher, 
the  other  only  the  fellow  pupils.  Such  a  problem  can  only  be  regarded 
as  really  solved  however  when  justice  is  done  to  both  parties.  If  they 
were  teachers  they  would  at  once  understand  that  without  obedience 
instruction  is  impossible.  Is  there  no  way  of  reconciling  loyalty  and 
obedience?  A  boy  answered:  'If  he  should  say  to  the  teacher:  he 
would  tell  on  condition  that  the  guilty  party  shall  not  be  punished.' 
To  this  of  course  the  reply  had  to  be  made  that  the  teacher  could  not 
agree  to  such  a  conditional  compromise.  Finally  the  following  method 
was  proposed:  'I  request  the  privilege  of  withholding  his  name  at 
present,  but  I  will  see  to  it  that  he  will  report  and  acknowledge  it.' 
To  my  question;  are  you  all  agreed  to  this  suggestion,  came  the 
unanimous  and  enthusiastic  'yes.'  Is  not  such  a  deliberate  understand- 
ing between  a  teacher  and  his  class  of  the  greatest  importance  both  for 
its  training  to  truthfulness  and  its  creating  an  attitude  of  confidence 
in  humanity?  To  assist  to  morality,  to  indicate  the  proper  methods, 
or  to  permit  the  children  to  discover  them  is  more  important  than 
preaching  and  teaching  morals." 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  197 

to  the  lack  of  independence  implied  in  the  fact  that  one  is 
guided  in  his  actions  by  what  others  do  or  leave  undone,  and 
would  thus  set  up  the  independence  of  the  individual  conscience 
as  the  ideal.  The  depth  and  rigor  of  these  principles  and  the 
vivid,  pedagogic,  downright  masterful  carrying  out  of  the  same 
deserve  the  highest  praise.  I  cannot  however  altogether  agree 
with  Foerster  at  this  point.  According  to  my  view  this  implies 
an  anti-social  over-strain  of  the  individualistic  principle.  And 
even  in  developing  a  love  for  the  truth  it  may  be  shown  how 
vitally  the  social  and  the  individual  factors  are  related  in  moral 
evolution,  and  that  regard  for  the  social  whole  is  the  stronger 
factor.  I  have  both  instituted  theoretical  investigations  and 
collected  abundant  material  of  fact  on  the  matter  of  truthfulness 
in  ordinarj-  life  and  in  school,  the  results  of  which  I  will  pre- 
sent in  brief. 

In  my  Essay  on  Truth  and  Falsehood  {Gedanken  und  Den- 
ker, 27-57)  I  have  shown  that  the  evaluation  of  truthfulness 
originates  from  two  distinct  sources.  One  of  its  motives  is 
social  in  its  nature  and  makes  honesty  a  duty  which  society 
strictly  insists  upon.  "  In  the  case  of  warfare  with  enemies 
and  when  life  is  in  danger  the  lie  (particularly  among  primitive 
races)  is  looked  upon  as  a  permissible  weapon  and  its  skillful 
and  effective  use  is  even  likely  to  inspire  admiration.  In  the 
relationship  existing  between  the  members  of  the  tribe  as  also 
within  the  family  on  the  other  hand  the  necessity  of  reciprocal 
integrity  and  loyalty  is  fundamentally  essential.  Experience 
teaches  assuredly  quite  early  that  the  weal  and  woe  of  the  tribe 
or  of  the  family  vitally  depend  on  the  reliability  of  its  mem- 
bers. The  leader  must  be  in  position  to  believe  the  statements 
and  pledges  of  his  people.  Hence  the  more  highly  developed 
the  sense  of  solidarity  so  much  the  more  highly  is  loj^alty  and 
truthfulness  towards  members  of  the  tribe  esteemed  and  de- 
manded, whilst  disloyalty  and  treason  is  the  more  severely  disap- 
proved and  punished."  As  social  life  and  social  intercourse 
therefore  becom.e  ever  more  complex  in  the  course  of  the  prog- 
ress of  civilization  and  constantly  assume  new  forms,  the  social 
obligation  of  truthfulness  likewise  undergoes  various  modifica- 
tions. It  can  easily  happen  that  the  individual  must  withhold  a 
fact  in  the  interest  of  the  community.  In  fact  the  situation  may 
even  arise  in  which  from  regard  for  the  welfare  of  the  commu- 


198  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

nity  or  from  sympathy  and  kindness  we  feel  obliged  to  deliber- 
ately falsify.  There  are  many  and  widely  different  social  duties 
which  sometimes  come  into  conflict.  Truthfulness  is  one  of 
these  duties,  but  by  no  means  the  first  nor  the  only  one.  In 
war  and  diplomacy,  at  the  sick  bed  and  in  penal  investigations 
the  sacrifice  of  the  lie  is  frequently  imperatively  required. 
Plato,  who  severely  criticises  the  dishonesty  of  the  Homeric 
Zeus,  nevertheless  concedes  without  argument  that  in  his  ideal 
state  official  falsehoods  are  indispensable  for  the  welfare  of  the 
whole.  But  the  fact  that  the  lie  is  always  felt  to  be  a  sacrifice, 
the  fact  that  a  moral  taint  likewise  attaches  to  the  perversion 
of  the  truth  sometimes  required  by  social  ethics,  the  fact  that 
we  experience  every  deliberate  falsehood  as  a  degradation  of  our 
personality,  is  due  to  the  other  of  the  two  motives  from  which, 
as  previously  observed,  the  appreciation  of  truthfulness  springs. 
In  addition  to  the  social  requirement  of  loyalty  and  of  keeping 
faith  there  is  a  second  mighty  factor  at  work  in  us,  which  makes 
truthfulness  a  necessity  of  our  nature,  the  lie  an  object  of 
disgust.  This  second  motive  is  individualistic  in  its  nature 
and  issues  from  the  depths  of  the  spontaneously  evolved  and 
invigorated  personality. 

Free  personality  deeply  feels  the  need  of  unfolding  itself, 
exercising  itself,  expressing  itself.  One  should  be  permitted  to 
say  what  he  thinks  and  feels,  and  he  should  have  the  courage 
to  say  it  even  against  tradition  and  ancestry.  Strong  individu- 
alties  have  always  felt  this  need  and  regarded  the  lie  a  degrada- 
tion of  personality,  a  violation  against  human  dignity.  Ab- 
horred like  the  gates  of  Hades  is  even  the  strong  and  upright 
Achilles,  the  man  who  thinks  one  thing  in  his  heart  and  speaks 
another  with  his  lips  (Hom.  Iliad,  IX,  312).  And  this  at- 
tribute is  so  strongly  blended  with  the  character  of  Achilles 
that  in  the  portrayal  of  later  poets  it  is  transmitted  to  his  son 
Neoptolemus,  who  proclaims  the  same  characteristic  so  man- 
fully in  the  Philoctetus  of  Sophocles.  Herbert  Spencer  has 
quite  correctly  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  even  among  na- 
ture peoples,  who  live  in  freedom,  truthfulness  is  relatively  very 
general,  and  history  reveals  the  fact  that  the  struggle  for  liberty 
which  the  individual  is  waging  against  tutelage  and  servility  is 
forever  associated  with  abhorrence  of  falsehood.  George  Ellin- 
ger  has  shown  in  his  excellent  study  of  the  relation  of  public 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  199 

opinion  to  truth  and  falsehood  during  the  tenth,  eleventh  and 
t^velfth  centuries,  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century 
a  much  freer  spirit  manifests  itself  and  that  contemporaneously 
truthfulness  is  on  the  increase  and  falsehood  an  object  of  intense 
disapprobation,  Luther,  a  man  moreover  of  uncommonly  strong 
personality,  concludes  that  there  is  no  more  shameful  vice  on 
earth  than  to  be  guilty  of  falsehood  and  disloyalty,  and  rejoices 
that  the  Germans,  in  contrast  with  the  Greeks  and  "  Welsh," 
still  show  a  slight  sense  of  resentment  and  shame  when  someone 
calls  them  a  liar.  At  the  same  period  Hans  Sachs  complains 
that  "  no  one  has  any  confidence  in  the  veracity  of  woman." 
And  this  intimate  relation  between  the  individual's  struggle  for 
liberty  and  the  esteem  of  truthfulness  appears  still  more  clearly 
in  Germany  during  the  eighteenth  century.  Self-liberating  per- 
sonality waved  its  winnowing  fan  with  mighty  power  and  in 
the  storm  and  stress  produced  the  ripest  fruit  of  German  poetry. 
"  Wealthy  in  the  treasures  his  own  bosom  had  long  concealed," 
man,  breaking  away  from  convention  and  tradition,  wished  to 
multiply  these  treasures  in  rich  abundance  and  to  enjoy  them. 
To  strive  for  a  clearer,  a  more  vivid  expression  of  the  profound 
surgings  of  the  soul,  not  to  suppress  a  single  natural  impulse, 
this  is  what  was  increasingly  insisted  on  and  practiced.  This 
is  the  spirit  that  gave  birth  to  the  Iphigenia  which  produced 
even^thing  through  her  noble  self  and  hence  could  not  condone 
falsehood,  could  not  place  it  above  self.  From  this  point  of 
view  we  likewise  understand  the  unqualified  condemnation  of 
falsehood  by  Kant  and  Fichte.  The  fact  that  Kant  only  reck- 
ons individualistic  motives  is  evident  in  that  in  his  theory  of 
morals  he  conceives  falsehood  exclusively  as  a  violation  of 
man's  duty  towards  himself.  And  besides,  he  expressly  says 
the  damage  resulting  from  falsehood  to  the  subject  himself 
or  to  others  has  no  bearing  whatever  on  moral  judgment. 
"  Falsehood  consists  in  the  rejection  and  likewise  the  destruc- 
tion of  one's  personal  worth."  Kant  moreover  undertook  su- 
perfluously to  prove  in  another  brief  essay  that  no  one  has  any 
right  to  falsify  for  love  of  humanity. 

Truthfulness  is  therefore  social  obligation  on  the  one  hand, 
but  on  the  other  it  becomes  a  necessity  to  stronger  natures  and 
gradually  develops  into  a  requirement  of  personal  worth. 
There  is  no  doubt  about  the  fact  that  this  t\vofold  nature  of 


200  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

honesty  frequently  gives  rise  to'  serious  conflicts  in  practical  life. 
But  it  is  likewise  certain  that  there  is  no  profound  or  irrecon- 
cilable antithesis  between  these  two  motives.  In  this  case  the 
synthesis  of  personal  duty  and  personal  dignity  may  frequently 
be  effected  even  in  the  practical  experience  of  the  school.  It 
must  therefore  be  our  duty,  to  implant  both  motives  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils,  if  possible,  permit  them  to  experience  both 
requirements  in  the  school,  and  suggest  a  method  for  their 
reconciliation. 

Let  us  try  to  show  by  a  concrete  case  how  this  psychological 
and  historical  analysis  may  be  applied  in  practical  pedagogy. 
In  a  class  over  which  I  am  presiding  some  mischief  has  been 
done,  let  us  say  a  window  has  been  broken  during  recess.  It 
is  my  duty  to  discover  the  guilty  party.  I  may  —  as  is  unfor- 
tunately frequently  done  —  as  an  apt  detective  proceed  after 
the  manner  of  a  policeman,  get  into  touch  with  several  "  trust- 
worthy "  pupils  and  induce  them  to  tell  me  who  the  culprit  is. 
I  have  thus  established  the  objective  fact  and  perhaps  even  won 
the  title  of  an  expert  detective.  But  I  have  not  only  con- 
tributed nothing  to  the  development  of  character,  but  in  this 
respect  rather  the  opposite.  I  have  helped  to  mature  the  spirit 
of  rivalry  and  sowed  enmity  among  the  pupils.  I  need  not  be 
surprised  to  find  within  a  few  days  that  my  informants  have 
been  thoroughly  thrashed  by  their  fellow-pupils.  Then  I  have 
another  opportunity  to  prove  my  police  talent  still  more  bril- 
liantly. 

But  I  may  likewise  proceed  quite  differently.  I  may  simply 
ask  the  class  who  has  broken  the  window  and  add  that  I 
definitely  expect  the  man  who  did  it  to  report.  If  I  have  care- 
fully cultivated  the  spirit  of  honesty  previously,  the  pupils  in- 
volved will  immediately  come  forward.  That  it  is  possible  to 
do  this  I  am  in  position  to  testify  on  the  basis  of  many  experi- 
ences as  class  supervisor  in  the  many  years  of  my  teaching  ac- 
tivity. But  cases  will  also  naturally  occur  that  no  one  will 
respond  to  my  inquiry.  I  would  then  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  the  guilty  party  is  not  only  under  obligation  to  me, 
but  likewise  to  his  fellow-pupils,  to  report.  If  he  refuses,  then 
the  whole  class  must  make  good  the  damage ;  he  thus  permits 
his  fellow  pupils  to  share  his  penalty,  which  is  certainly  not 
specially  honorable.     But  if  the  class  is  dominated  by  a  strong 


11 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  20i 

esprit  de  corps  no  one  will  report.  I  then  penalize  the  class 
and  require  them  to  make  good  the  damages  in  common.  In- 
asmuch as  the  apportioned  cost  to  each  individual  pupil  is  but 
slight  they  readily  accept  it  and  the  matter  is  settled.  And  we 
openh'  grant  that  in  this  procedure  there  has  nothing  been  ac- 
complished towards  character  development  and  towards  train- 
ing in  honesty.  The  pupils  stand  as  a  compact  mass  in  oppo- 
sition to  their  teachers,  rejoice  in  the  fact  that  he  failed  to 
accomplish  anything,  take  pride  in  their  solidarity  and  resolve 
upon  a  similar  course  next  time. 

But  in  case  a  man  succeeds  in  getting  the  pupil  to  report  he 
has  a  most  favorable  opportunity  of  impressing  the  value  of 
honesty  on  their  minds  concretely.  The  pupil  has  thus  dis- 
charged his  social  obligation  to  his  comrades  and  must  at  the 
same  time  feel  that  he  has  elevated  his  personal  w^orth.  He 
has  courageously  accepted  the  consequences  of  his  own  action, 
has  not  depended  on  the  sympathy  of  his  colleagues  like  a 
coward,  and  submitted  himself  to  the  disposal  of  the  teacher 
not  indeed  as  one  subdued  by  force,  but  of  his  own  spontaneous 
initiative.  It  likewise  furnishes  an  opportunity  to  call  attention 
to  the  relation  existing  between  honesty  and  the  sense  of  honor 
as  well  as  the  courage  involved  in  voluntary  confession. 

But  practical  pedagogics  likewise  furnishes  other  frequent 
opportunity  —  besides  cases  of  discipline  —  for  the  exercise  ot 
such  influence.  Let  us  assume,  e.  g.,  that  I  have  explained  a 
somewhat  difficult  portion  of  grammar  —  conditional  sentences 
in  Greek,  for  example  —  a  difficult  proposition  in  geometry,  a 
complicated  psychological  analysis,  a  rather  difficult  sentence  in 
a  foreign  language,  before  the  class  as  a  whole  and  I  am  not 
quite  satisfied  that  they  have  all  been  able  to  follow,  and  I  ask 
for  example,  "  Is  there  anyone  who  does  not  fully  understand 
it?  "  Frequently  no  one  will  say  anything,  perhaps  because  they 
hesitate  to  acknowledge  their  dullness  of  comprehension,  or  be- 
cause they  are  not  sufficiently  clear  about  the  matter  to  be  aware 
of  their  lack  of  understanding  it.  I  call  on  one  of  the  w^eaker 
pupils  and  convince  him  and  myself  that  he  does  not  yet  fully 
understand  the  matter.  I  ask  him  very  kindly  to  explain  why 
he  failed  to  say  so  in  response  to  my  request.  In  this  connection 
I  cite  my  beloved  Socrates  who  regarded  it  an  indication  of 
superior  wisdom  for  anyone  to  know  that  he  knows  nothing, 


202  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

and  show  him  that  it  is  by  no  means  a  sign  of  lack  of  intelli- 
gence to  be  aware  that  certain  matters  are  still  obscure.  And 
in  addition  I  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  by  his  spontaneous 
rising  he  would  no  doubt  have  helped  a  number  of  his  fellow- 
pupils  who  likewise  failed  to  understand  the  matter,  but  were 
too  embarrassed  to  acknowledge  it.  Even  here  honesty  mani- 
fests its  twofold  function.  It  liberates  the  individual  from  a 
certain  sense  of  pressure  which  he  feels,  with  the  efFect  that 
should  not  appear  to  be  intellectually  more  than  he  really  is, 
and  at  the  same  time  helps  others  who  are  in  the  same  position. 
If  we  adopt  this  mode  of  procedure  and  utilize  every  oppor- 
tunity to  let  the  pupils  feel  the  twofold  effect  of  honesty  we 
will  eventually  succeed,  if  not  in  entirely  banishing,  at  least 
in  very  materially  reducing  the  spirit  of  falsehood  which  our 
present  school  system  is  unfortunately  so  likely  to  foster.  One 
may  even  accomplish  a  great  deal  with  habitual  falsifiers,  as  my 
own  experience  testifies,  by  private  conversation  and  in  the 
presence  of  the  class,  if  he  moreover  exercises  the  indispensable 
quality  of  patience  and  love. 

The  example  of  the  teacher  can  likewise  accomplish  much  at 
this  point.  If  he  always  practices  absolute  honesty,  sticks  close 
to  the  facts  in  his  treatment  of  a  disciplinary  offence  and  makes 
no  effort  at  coloring  for  effect,  if  he  invariably  frankly  admits 
that  he  does  not  know  and  makes  no  effort  to  extricate  himself 
with  subterfuge  and  platitudinous  declarations,  if  he  frankly 
acknowledges  an  error  or  an  injustice  and  rectifies  the  matter 
publicly.  The  pupils  will  then  see  that  he  is  actually  serious  in 
his  insistence  on  honesty  and  they  are  ashamed  to  lie  to  such  a 
man. 

Although  my  experience  teaches  that  not  a  little  can  be  ac- 
complished towards  discipline  in  honesty  even  under  the  despotic 
school  regime  as  it  is  still  generally  constituted,  I  must  neverthe- 
less say  that  the  "  school  community  "  and  "  self-government  " 
can  accomplish  vastly  more  in  this  respect.  Here  the  dishonest 
pupil  who  wishes  to  deceive  his  teacher  cannot  count  on  the 
support  of  his  comrades  in  the  contest  against  a  common  enemy. 
Here  he  is  confronted  by  the  increasingly  refined  public  senti- 
ment of  his  class,  which  affects  him  powerfully.  He  then  feels 
the  social  value  and  the  liberating  power  of  truth  far  more  in- 
tensively.    The  deepest  energies  of  his  soul  are  uncovered  and 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  203 

everything  impels  him  in  the  direction  of  honesty.  The  pupil 
now  feels  himself  impelled  and  urged  from  within  to  do  that 
for  which  the  teacher  could  only  gradually  prepare  the  way  even 
in  the  face  of  tremendous  opposition.  Self-government,  which 
trains  for  liberty  and  responsibility  is  likewise  even  on  this  ac- 
count well  adapted  to  quicken  the  sense  of  veracity  and  to 
permit  the  pupils  to  feel  its  twofold  value  quite  frequently  and 
intensively. 

Another  no  less  important  activity  of  personal  worth  is  in- 
volved in  self-control.  This  virtue  has  received  the  highest 
praise  of  educators  of  all  ages.  The  Spartan  education  trained 
the  boys  to  endure  the  severest  pains  with  terrible  rigor,  and 
Christian  pedagogy  not  only  regarded  self-vanquishment  the 
proof  of  spiritual  power,  but  even  the  condition  of  future  salva- 
tion and  accordingly  not  only  recommended  the  cultivation  of 
this  virtue  most  enthusiastically,  but  even  practiced  it  most  ef- 
fectively. There  is  no  doubt  about  the  fact  that  discipline  in 
self-control  is  an  exceedingly  important  task  of  the  teacher.  As 
proof  of  subjective  energy'  self-control  is  indeed  an  uplift  of 
personal  dignity.  And  furthermore  the  man  who  has  his  pri- 
mary functions  in  his  own  power,  who  commands  his  body, 
endures  hunger  and  thirst,  is  capable  of  governing  his  violent 
passion,  is  a  far  more  useful  member  of  human  society  than  one 
who  is  accustomed  to  follow  every  momentan,'  impulse. 

Self-control  is  therefore  likewise  a  synthesis  of  both  factors 
governing  moral  evolution  and  must  therefore  be  cultivated  and 
exercised  in  this  double  aspect.  Foerster  likewise  offers  valu- 
able principles  and  practical  suggestions  on  this  point  {School 
and  Character)  from  which  every  teacher  can  gain  much  of 
value  in  practical  pedagog\\  His  suggestions  are  specially  valu- 
able where  he  shows  how  daily  events  in  the  life  of  the  school, 
such  as  tardiness,  laughing  and  talking  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils  may  be  made  the  subject  of  interesting  discussions  based 
on  the  direct  experiences  of  the  children.  He  shows  ex- 
quisitely how  to  proceed  in  order  to  let  self-control  appear  as 
the  effect  of  subjective  energ}',  how  one  may  appeal  to  the  sense 
of  honor,  to  the  heroic  in  child  nature,  and  I  am  convinced 
that  much  can  be  accomplished  with  the  pupils  by  following  his 
suggestions. 

Notwithstanding  this,  however,  I  disagree  with  Foerster  in 


204  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

an  important  point  touching  the  theory  of  the  pedagogic  signif- 
icance of  self-control  and  self-vanquishment.  He  inclines 
strongly  towards  regarding  self-vanquishment  not  merely  as  an 
exercise  of  subjective  energy,  but  as  something  meritorious  in 
itself.  But  from  my  viewpoint  of  social  ethics  I  cannot  con- 
cede this.  I  find  that  the  hearty  devotion  of  the  individual  to 
the  purposes  of  the  welfare  of  the  community,  which  concen- 
trate his  total  effort,  without  any  subjective  reserve,  on  a  self- 
chosen  high  ideal  is  socially  more  effective  and  stands  therefore 
on  a  higher  ethical  plane  (Cf.  My  Introduction  to  Philosophy j 
Eng.  Trans.,  p.  267).  Whenever  there  is  a  serious  struggle 
against  strong  temptation,  the  ultimate  victory  is  invariably 
doubtful.  It  were  no  doubt  better  for  social  welfare  and  for 
personal  happiness  if  people  were  spared  such  profound  battles. 
This  is  my  reason  for  saying  previously  (p.  68f)  that  we  are 
not  so  much  in  need  of  restraining  equipment  as  of  invigoration, 
enlargement  and  control  of  volition.  The  more  intensely  and 
the  more  unambiguously  the  social  motives  operate,  so  much 
the  more  certainly  do  they  determine  the  direction  of  volition 
and  so  much  the  more  pleasurable  is  the  exercise  of  the  will. 
But  we  must  not  forget  that  we  are  still  far  removed  from  such 
an  ideal  state  of  society  as  will  make  this  kind  of  volitional 
training  possible.  Man  is  at  present  confronted  with  difficult 
problems  and  the  educator  is  under  obligation  to  prepare  the 
youth  for  these  life  problems  and  arouse  the  powers  which  he 
will  need  in  meeting  them.  We  must  therefore  strengthen 
the  spiritual  side  of  their  nature  and  this  will  require  intensive 
practice  in  self-control  for  a  long  time  to  come.  In  order  to 
make  clear  just  what  this  involves  I  shall  have  to  present  a 
brief  psychological  analysis. 

The  ego  is  conceived  as  the  vehicle  of  our  centralized  organi- 
zation. This  central  dynamic  which  pervades  all  psychical 
processes  and  makes  them  what  they  really  are  undergoes  an 
exceedingly  complicated  process  of  enrichment  and  differentia- 
tion of  functions.  The  ego  which  we  bring  with  us  into  the 
world  and  which  functions  almost  exclusively  during  infancy, 
Theodore  Meynert  has  quite  pertinently  called  the  primary  ego. 
The  primary  ego  is  regarded  as  the  center  of  energy  whence 
all  movements  proceed  which  tend  to  satisfy  the  original  im- 
pulses and  desires.     The  primary  ego  makes  provision  for  the 


J 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  205 

satisfaction  of  hunger,  the  warding  off  of  dangerous  attacks 
and  thus  preserves  and  protects  our  body.  Our  ego-conscious- 
ness then  experiences  a  most  extraordinary  enlargement  by 
means  of  our  ideas  of  memory  and  imagination,  by  means  of 
intellect,  emotion  and  desire.  All  that  we  have  seen  and  felt, 
all  the  plans  we  have  elaborated,  the  ideals  which  we  follow, 
our  family,  our  native  land  and  its  histor>^  every  one  of  these 
in  a  certain  sense  gradually  becomes  an  element  of  our  ego. 
iVIej'nert  has  coined  the  term  "  secondary  ego  "  for  this  en- 
larged ego-consciousness.  The  secondary'  ego  likewise  becomes 
a  kind  of  center  of  energy  and  defends  its  possessions  against 
harmful  attacks.  In  this  defence  it  may  easily  happen  that 
the  secondary  ego  gets  into  conflict  with  the  primary  ego,  and 
it  has  not  infrequently  happened  that  the  primary  ego  is  lost 
in  this  battle.  We  are  ready  to  lay  down  our  lives  for  the 
sake  of  our  honor,  for  the  sake  of  our  country.  Even  the 
scientific  impulse  has  sometimes  been  stronger  than  the  primary 
impulse  of  self-preservation.  And  the  cases  in  which  religious 
faith  has  been  stronger  than  the  love  of  life  have  been  quite 
numerous. 

Among  children  the  primary  ego  has  all  but  complete  con- 
trol, which  explains  the  natural  egoism  of  childhood  which  so 
often  charms  us  by  its  naivete.  But  life  does  not  permit  this 
frank  and  apparently  so  estimable  a  care  for  the  primary'  ego 
to  constitute  the  abiding  habit  of  the  mind.  The  child  must 
become  an  adult  and  enlarge  its  primary  to  a  secondary  ego 
on  this  account.  If  we  should  characterize  the  actual  process 
of  the  educator's  work  in  terms  of  pure  psychology,  we  should 
have  to  say:  The  educator  is  occupied  creatively  with  the 
secondary  ego  of  his  pupils. 

If  we  therefore  raise  the  question,  on  the  basis  of  this  psycho- 
logical analysis,  what  constitutes  self-control,  we  are  now  in 
position  to  reply  that  it  is  simply  a  matter  of  strengthening  the 
secondar^^  ego  and  preparing  for  its  control  of  the  primary. 
As  we  become  accustomed  to  propose  higher,  farther-reaching 
spiritual  ambitions  to  ourselves  and  suppress  hunger,  thirst, 
the  clamor  of  the  passing  mood,  in  its  attainment,  we  are  like- 
wise exercising  self-control  in  that  we  are  enriching  our  second- 
ary ego.  But  if  this  suppression  is  forcefully  imposed  on  the 
pupils  by  requiring  them  to  sit  quietly  at  school  and  to  work 


2o6  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

for  hours  on  assigned  tasks  at  home,  the  care  of  the  secondary 
ego  may  easily  lead  to  a  stunting  of  the  primary  with  serious 
physical  consequences,  as  is  only  too  frequently  the  case  in  the 
practical  life  of  the  school.  The  primary  ego  moreover  is  and 
must  remain  the  basis  of  the  ego-consciousness  throughout  life, 
for  the  simple  reason  that  the  bodily  functions  are  the  sources 
of  energy  for  the  spiritual  functions. 

Self-control  must  therefore  not  be  practiced  as  if  the  sup- 
pression of  phj'sical  demands  were  a  desirable  achievement  in 
itself.  The  secondary  ego  must  rather  make  careful  provision 
for  the  primary,  but  constantly  keep  in  mind  that  the  physical 
powers  are  to  be  made  to  serve  higher  ends.  The  mind  must 
not  destroy  the  body,  but  help  to  build  it  up  in  order  that  it 
may  have  a  vigorous  and  reliable  servant.  Herbert  Spencer 
has  forcefully  emphasized  this  duty  towards  one's  own  health 
in  his  volume  on  Education.  Self-control  is  therefore  not  so 
much  the  suppression  as  the  government  of  the  primary  energies 
and  impulses.  And  then  it  is  identical  with  what  the  Stoic 
Sage,  Epicurus,  Kant  and  Schiller  called  subjective  freedom. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  practice  of  self-control  is  nothing 
else  than  discipline  in  subjective  freedom.  It  is  not  altogether 
a  simple  task  to  grasp  the  essential  nature  of  this  psychical 
state.  It  is  the  sense  of  assurance,  reference  to  the  chosen  am- 
bition and  the  methods  of  its  realization.  Subjective  freedom 
consists  of  vital  and  intense  concentration  of  the  deepest  psychi- 
cal energies,  which  then  pervade  and  vitalize  all  psychical  ex- 
perience. The  philosopher,  v.ho  has  with  his  own  powers 
worked  out  an  adequate  theory  of  the  universe  and  of  life  and 
with  calm  assurance  forms  his  judgments  and  adopts  his  meas- 
ures in  all  the  vicissitudes  of  existence  from  this  vantage 
ground,  possesses  the  highest  degree  of  freedom.  So  likewise 
the  believing  soul  who  feels  himself  a  child  of  God  and  knows 
that  he  is  under  the  care  of  the  almighty  and  all-merciful 
Father,  possesses  subjective  freedom.  And  the  most  ordinary 
man  likewise  achieves  subjective  freedom  if  he  devotes  himself 
to  a  self-chosen  social  problem  and  dedicates  his  services  to  this 
cause.  It  is  likewise  possible  therefore  to  implant  the  gjerms 
in  the  youthful  souls,  entrusted  to  our  training,  whicK  will 
gradually  develop,  the  tree  of  subjective  freedom. 

In  the  case  of  youth,  the  pathway  to  subjective  frQe4QKi  3eads 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  207 

through  industry,  the  discharge  of  duty  and  spontaneous  obedi- 
ence. If  we  succeed  in  giving  the  native  impulse  towards 
exercise  in  young  people  a  definite  tendency  and  to  form  an 
ideal  conformable  with  and  adequate  to  their  powers,  the  youth- 
ful soul  will  soon  acquire  the  necessary  strength  to  conquer 
transitory  moods  and  passions.  Yes,  even  better  still!  The 
temptations  and  desires  aroused  in  the  environment  of  the  pupils 
by  all  manner  of  exciting  stimuli  gradually  lose  much  of  their 
enticing  power  and  eventually  even  scarcely  attract  attention. 
Just  as  in  the  case  of  the  experienced  mountain-climber  to  whom 
the  difficulties  originally  so  apparently  insuperable  no  longer 
appear  as  such,  but  rather  as  furnishing  welcome  opportunities 
for  the  exercise  of  his  power  and  skill,  so  likewise  the  influence 
of  work  and  duty  of  this  kind  so  strengthens  the  youthful  soul 
that  he  scarcely  notes  the  temptations  with  which  he  meets  and 
easily  conquers  them. 

Exercises  assigned  for  the  express  purpose  of  developing  self- 
control,  are  of  course  bound  to  advance  this  invigoration  of  the 
soul,  but  in  my  judgment  they  do  not  constitute  the  matter  of 
chief  importance.  The  skillful  teacher  will  of  course  not 
permit  any  opportunity  in  this  direction  which  casually  presents 
itself  to  pass  unimproved  and  he  will  find  valuable  suggestions 
on  this  point  in  Foerster.  But  the  most  important  matter  is 
this,  namely,  that  the  whole  conduct  of  the  school  be  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  excite  and  discipline  the  individual  centers  of  the 
spiritual  energy  of  the  pupils.  And  the  school  community  and 
self-government  is  likewise  better  adapted  to  this  end  than  our 
despotic  system.  But  there  is  still  another  method  which  leads 
to  subjective  freedom  the  effects  of  which  in  this  direction  are 
far  less  recognized  and  scarcely  pursued  at  all.  Above  all 
others,  our  great  poet,  Friedrich  Schiller,  has  called  attention  to 
this  method. 

The  profound  meaning  of  his  letters  on  aesthetic  education 
and  the  poem.  Ideal  und  Leben,  is  simply  this,  that  we  are 
capable  of  refining  ourselves  to  real  subjective  freedom  not  only 
by  work  and  duty,  but  likewise  by  pure,  unselfish,  pleasure,  the 
joy  inspired  by  the  contemplation  of  art  and  the  beauty  of  na- 
ture. Even  in  antiquity  Aristippus,  and  more  particularly 
Epicurus,  recognized  this  effect  of  joy.  But  it  was  left  for 
Schiller  to  make  the  idea  practically  effective  by  his  thorough 


2o8  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

philosophical  analysis  and  at  the  same  time  incorporate  it  in  his 
poetry.  From  this  viewpoint  aesthetic  training,  to  the  im- 
portance of  which  we  have  made  repeated  reference,  acquires 
an  entirely  different  significance.  If  we  help  our  pupils  to 
comprehend  the  great  poets  of  all  the  ages,  if  we  assist  them 
to  find  joy  in  these  productions,  we  do  not  thereby  merely  fur- 
nish them  a  transitory  satisfaction ;  no,  we  at  the  same  time 
contribute  to  their  higher  moral  discipline.  If  they  should 
more  frequently  have  the  opportunity  of  soaring  to  those  realms 
where  pure  forms  abide,  if  they  should  gradually  get  an  im- 
pression of  the  fact  that  art  elevates  to  a  higher  sphere  of  being, 
that  we  are  purer  and  better  men  while  under  its  spell,  they 
would  then  later  in  life  more  frequently  seek  the  opportunity  of 
drinking  at  this  everlasting  fountain  of  youth  and  thus 
strengthen  and  purify  the  soul.  They  should  gradually  learn 
to  understand  and  feel  the  meaning  of  Schiller's  description  of 
perfect  art : 

Alle    Zweifel,    alle    Kämpfe    schweigen 
In  des  Sieges  hoher  Sicherheit: 
Ausgestossen  hat  es  jeden  Zeugen 
Menschlicher  Bedürftigkeit. 

The  classical  philologist  who  is  completely  saturated  with 
this  sublime  and  profound  effect  of  aesthetic  education  will  be 
slow  to  regard  Homer  as  nothing  more  than  a  collection  of 
hexameters,  ionic  forms  and  allegories  and  the  tragedies  of 
Sophocles  simply  as  trimeters,  dactyls,  dochmiac  or  doric  verse. 
He  will  far  rather  devote  his  best  thought  to  enabling  the  pu- 
pils to  perceive  the  profound  spiritual  apprehension  and  the 
perfect  art  of  the  ancients  and  in  showing  them  that  these  crea- 
tions of  Greek  genius  still  live  in  the  undiminished  vigor  of 
youth. 

If  we  thus  educate  our  pupils  sesthetically  in  Schiller's  spirit 
we  will  likewise  protect  them  against  the  individualistic  excess 
of  the  "  artistic "  sense  so  prevalent  in  modern  aestheticism. 
The  modern  virtuoso  as  a  matter  of  fact  hasn't  any  real  joy  in 
art.  He  simply  pokes  his  aesthetic  proboscis  into  every  nook 
and  corner,  sniffs  the  air  and  smells  about  to  see  whether  he 
can  discover  anything  anj^vhere  which  might  furnish  him 
occasion  to  take  offence  in  his  hyper-sensitiveness.     In  the  ar- 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  209 

rangements  of  the  home  which  he  has  occasion  to  examine  he 
discovers  for  example  that  the  table-cover  doesn't  harmonize 
vi^ith  the  furniture,  observes  that  this  painting  is  poorly  hung 
and  that  the  door  is  painted  too  dark.  At  an  art  exhibition  he 
feels  bored  and  lonely  because  there  is  too  much  of  the  "  or- 
dinary," too  little  of  the  bizarre  and  cheap  originality.  At  the 
theater  the  somewhat  too  deep  voice  of  a  playwright  may 
destroy  his  enjoyment  of  the  most  stirring  tragedy,  and  a  single 
false  note  robs  him  of  his  joy  in  the  "  Master-singers."  If  he 
knew  how  to  estimate  himself  correctly,  he  would  be  forced 
to  say: 

Von  Freud'  ist  nicht  die  Rede, 
Dem  Taumel  weih'  ich  mich,  dem  schmerzlichsten  Genuss. 

The  true  lover  of  art  on  the  other  hand  —  and  it  is  to  such 
we  should  train  our  pupils  —  listens  eagerly  to  the  tune  of  a 
Beethoven  symphony,  even  if  the  orchestra  fails  to  meet  the 
highest  requirements,  is  profoundly  stirred  by  Othello  even  if 
Desdemona's  voice  is  kej'ed  a  little  high  and  lago  doesn't  play 
the  devil  effectively.  At  an  exhibition  he  seeks  out  the  paint- 
ings that  please  him  and  has  no  need  of  showing  off  his  superi- 
ority by  criticising  the  less  successful.  The  genuine  joy  in  the 
beautiful  is  never  over-pretentious.  Anyone  who  has  cultivated 
and  developed  this  joy  in  his  own  soul,  as  I  am  accustomed  to 
put  it  in  my  ^Esthetics  (Introduction  to  Philosophy,  Eng. 
Trans.,  p.  231  f.),  is  receptive  of  the  "tender  wooing"  con- 
tained in  every  great  work  of  art.  Inasmuch  as  he  hears  this 
wooing  his  enraptured  emotion  is  reflected  back  on  the  artistic 
forms  and  clothes  them  with  a  new,  spiritual  and  vital  beauty 
which  at  once  thrills  with  joy  and  elevates. 

Leading  our  pupils  to  subjective  freedom  not  alone  by  the 
ordinary  method  of  industry  and  duty,  but  likewise  by  the 
method  of  pure  and  refined  joy  is  an  exceedingly  profitable 
occupation.  The  pedagogic  value  of  joy,  as  I  have  previously 
indicated  is  thus  essentially  enhanced.  The  subjective  freedom 
laboriously  acquired  by  means  of  industry  and  duty  is  thus 
surcharged  with  an  inner  warmth  and  at  the  same  time  becomes 
a  never  failing  fountain  of  happiness. 

There  is  another  function  of  personal  dignity  closely  related 
with  the  cultivation  of  honesty  and  education  to  self-control 


2IO  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

and  subjective  freedom  which  is  exceedingly  important  for  prac- 
tical pedagogics.  I  refer  to  the  gradual  development  of  the 
sense  of  honor  among  the  pupils.  "  It  is  right  among  young 
people,"  says  Foerster,  "  that  the  sense  of  honor  is  likewise  the 
foundation  of  all  moral  cleanliness  and  a  teacher  who  treats 
the  pupil's  sense  of  honor  indifferently  becomes  directly  co- 
responsible  for  their  moral  degeneration."  Here  I  can  again 
fully  agree  with  this  profound  pedagogue  and  support  his  as- 
sertion with  numerous  personal  experiences.  The  thing  that 
Foerster  means  by  sense  of  honor  is  indeed  the  claim  on  social 
respect.  The  demand  for  this  is  rather  strongly  developed, 
particularly  in  the  higher  classes  and  by  taking  account  of  this 
demand  and  directing  it  into  the  proper  channels  we  can  con- 
siderably simplify  the  administration  of  school  discipline  and  at 
the  same  time  contribute  to  the  cultivation  of  personal  dignity. 
Let  me  supplement  this  with  a  personal  experience.  On  a 
certain  occasion  at  the  beginning  of  the  school  year  the  Di- 
rector requested  me  to  assume  the  office  of  principal  in  the 
highest  class  as  substitute  for  a  colleague  who  was  ill.  This 
colleague  had  the  reputation  of  maintaining  excellent  discipline, 
and  also  as  governing  by  fear  and  rigor.  Since  my  method  of 
handling  the  pupils  of  the  higher  classes  was  entirely  different, 
I  feared  that  the  pupils  might  soon  degenerate  under  my  much 
milder  system.  I  accordingly  stated,  at  my  first  meeting  with 
the  class,  that  I  meant  to  treat  the  pupils,  who  in  fact  would 
leave  school  within  a  year,  even  now  as  free  personalities,  as 
gentlemen,  and  would  expect  their  cooperation.  The  experi- 
ment was  a  complete  success.  We  finished  the  year  —  with 
quite  negligible  exceptions  —  without  any  penal  discipline  and 
the  colleagues  were  very  well  satisfied  with  the  conduct  of  the 
class. 

This,  how^ever,  comes  far  short  of  adequate  cultivation  of  the 
sense  of  honor.  It  is  by  no  means  sufficient  that  one  should 
not  violate  —  I  might  call  it  —  the  social  sense  of  honor  of 
the  pupils.  We  should  rather  try  to  cultivate  intensively  and 
effect  the  development  of  personal  sense  of  honor,  what  the 
English  call  self-respect,  the  French  amour  propre.  And  I  am 
not  thinking  at  all  of  the  ambition  or  effort  for  external  dis- 
tinctions. This  pedagogic  principle,  which  was  so  prevalent 
in  antiquity  and  still  prevails  in  France,  has  been  almost  entirely 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  21 1 

banished  from  the  schools  of  Germany  and  Austria,  I  rather 
mean  that  inner  sense  of  honor  that  might  also  be  described  as 
a  superior  sense  of  duty.  It  is  this  cultivation  of  personal  con- 
science that  impels  us  to  do  our  best,  to  set  higher  ideals  and 
to  work  with  all  our  might  for  the  realization  of  our  self- 
appointed  tasks.  The  unrivalled  example  of  this  ideal,  as 
previously  observed,  is  Socrates. 

The  school  cultivates  this  deep-lying  energy  of  the  soul  by 
requiring  more  from  the  more  talented  pupil,  by  showing  him 
that  his  achievement  is  insufficient  because  he  is  capable  of 
greater  things.  But  we  are  likewise  contributing  to  the  same 
result  when  we  encourage  the  weaker  pupils  who  give  evidence 
of  serious  effort  and  express  our  satisfaction  to  them.  And 
this  whole  matter  of  personal  sense  of  honor  may  likewise  as- 
sume a  social  aspect  by  requiring  the  more  talented  pupils  to 
explain  what  they  have  learned,  what  they  have  thoroughly 
grasped,  as  clearly  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  others  may  hear 
it  again  and  thus  understand  it  more  readily. 

And  here  again  self-government  offers  more  advantages  than 
the  despotic  system.  According  to  the  unanimous  consensus  of 
the  reports  of  educators  it  is  precisely  the  officers  and  guardians 
chosen  by  the  class  who  set  their  honor,  not  merely  on  the 
conscientious  administration  of  their  office,  but  devote  their 
whole  mental  and  moral  power  to  devise  new  methods  which 
will  lead  more  easily  and  more  certainly  to  the  goal.  Such 
impulses,  issuing  from  the  very  inmost  nature  of  the  pupils 
themselves  is  naturally  more  effective  and  abiding  than  the  com- 
mands and  suggestions  of  the  teacher. 

According  to  the  preceding  discussions  therefore  our  ethical 
problem  consists  in  seeking  to  develop  the  social  spirit  in  our 
pupils  and  at  the  same  time  quickening  and  cultivating  the 
sense  of  personal  dignity.  These  two  aims  frequently  com- 
bine into  one.  Their  common  object  is  to  educate  the  pupils 
to  socially  useful  and  individually  independent  characters.  The 
whole  pedagogic  program  should  be  inspired  with  this  spirit. 
Every  teacher  who  has  clearly  grasped  this  fact  and  is  thor- 
oughly saturated  with  the  significance  of  the  viewpoint  of  social 
ethics  in  education  will  find  abundant  opportunities  in  his  own 
subject  to  exercise  this  influence  upon  the  souls  entrusted  to  his 
care.     But  above  all  else  we  must  never  forget  in  the  adminis- 


212  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

tration  of  school  discipline,  that  we  are  not  self-sufficient  tyrants, 
not  chiefly  severe  taskmasters  and  lords,  but  preeminently  edu- 
cators and  the  affectionate  friends  of  our  pupils.  Since  the 
preceding  discussions  have  chiefly  referred  to  discipline  it  re- 
mains to  return  once  more  to  this  important  topic  and  briefly 
explain  the  practical  application  of  the  principles  set  forth. 

5.     Discipline,  Instruction  in  Morals 

We  have  previously  discussed  school  discipline,  but  only  from 
the  viewpoint  of  the  methods  which  aim  to  secure  the  quiet 
and  orderly  conduct  of  instruction  and  preserving  order  in  gen- 
eral. In  this  more  objective  sense  we  proposed  the  principle 
that  prevention  is  better  than  punishment  and  illustrated  it  by 
practical  examples,  as  an  important  maxim  for  the  administra- 
tion of  school  discipline.  It  will  now  appear  that  this  principle 
has  a  deeper  significance  and  that  it  likewise  applies  to  the  pres- 
ent problem  of  the  educative  task  of  school  discipline.  Forester, 
whose  entire  volume.  Schule  und  Charakter,  is  devoted  to  the 
problem  of  discipline,  says  that  the  fundamental  error  of  our 
whole  discipline  lies  "  in  the  lack  of  the  preventive  care  of  souls." 
He  therefore  makes  use  of  the  same  idea  as  we,  but  gives  it  a 
far  deeper  meaning.  Here  the  preventive  care  of  souls  does 
not  mean,  as  it  does  with  us  in  our  previous  reference,  the  re- 
moval of  temptations,  a  prudent  avoidance  of  occasions.  Here 
"  prevention  "  consists  in  inspiring  in  the  pupil's  will  a  positive 
content,  to  give  it  its  direction  and  thus  assist  our  pupils  sub- 
jectively to  acquire  the  power  of  resisting  temptations. 

School  discipline  therefore  does  not  merely  require  the  abate- 
ment of  disturbing  factors.  It  should  rather  be  administered  in 
such  a  manner  as  will  contribute  to  character  development  in 
a  positive  sense.  If  it  is  to  accomplish  this  it  must  be,  to  adopt 
Foerster's  splendid  expression,  not  doing  police  duty,  but  exer- 
cising pastoral  care.  Each  separate  case  of  discipline  must  be 
made  an  occasion  for  clarifying  the  ideas  and  judgments  of  the 
pupils.  They  must  be  given  the  opportunity  of  expressing  their 
opinion,  in  order  that  the  teacher  may  be  in  position,  not  merely 
to  admonish  and  penalize,  but  to  create  new  motives. 

The  preceding  discussions  contain  a  sufficient  number  of  ex- 
amples of  such  personal  influences.     In  this  connection  I  would 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  213 

particularly  emphasize  that  the  young  fellow  who  has  done 
something,  should  not  be  regarded  as  nothing  but  a  mischief- 
maker,  an  enfant  terrible,  an  enemy  of  peace  and  order.  We 
should  above  all  else  keep  in  mind  that  it  is  an  immature  soul 
'still  in  process  of  development,  which,  like  all  growing  things, 
appreciates  afFectionate  assistance.  We  must  endeavor  to  an- 
alyze this  child-soul  as  deeply  as  possible.  We  may  perhaps 
find  that  the  same  impulse  which  led  to  mischief,  deviltry,  on 
this  occasion  can  be  transformed  into  a  power  for  good.  Disci- 
pline should,  as  Foerster  again  very  effectively  observes,  aim  to 
"  help  the  child  to  morality,  and  not  to  render  his  correct  con- 
duct as  diificult  as  possible."  We  teachers  must  get  this  fact 
clear  in  our  minds,  namely,  that  school  life  and  comradeship 
does  not  by  any  means  develop  character  automatically.  We 
dare  not  close  our  eyes  to  the  fact  that  this  group  life  and 
group  work  is  likewise  fraught  with  serious  dangers  to  moral 
development.  Let  us  not  be  deceived  as  to  the  effect  of  ad- 
monitions and  punishments.  It  is  necessary  to  fix  our  attention 
on  the  concrete  realit)'^,  the  vital  interests  of  the  child  and  ap- 
proach it  from  the  viewpoint  of  its  germinal  principle.  We 
have  repeatedly  spoken  of  the  tremendous  influence  which  the 
general  sentiment  of  the  class  has  upon  the  individual  pupil. 
This  influence  is  therefore  frequently  quite  harmful  unless  we 
are  constantly  concerned  to  direct  this  general  sentiment  into 
the  proper  channels.  The  discussion  of  cases  of  discipline  can 
be  effectively  utilized  to  this  end. 

Every  teacher  can  certainly  hold  such  discussions  with  the 
class  occasionally.  But  the  chief  portion  of  this  work  will 
naturally  fall  to  the  division  principal.  The  principal  will  soon 
find  that  such  matters  consume  much  time  and  that  he  falls 
behind  in  his  subject.  But  this  misfortune  can  easily  be  dis- 
posed of  by  setting  apart  several  periods  for  such  discussions. 
The  penal  periods  during  afternoons  in  which  there  is  no  school, 
which  has  considerable  vogue  in  Germany,  our  own  practice  of 
keeping  pupils  in  after  divine  services  on  Sunday,  would  have 
an  entirely  different  disciplinary  value  if  used  for  discussions 
rather  than  punishment.  And  in  my  judgment  this  would  be 
the  most  effective  teaching  of  ethics,  because  it  naturally  deals 
with  concrete,  personal  facts  of  experience. 

I  take  this  opportunity  of  making  several  observations  con- 


214  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

cerning  the  teaching  of  ethics,  introduced  by  a  number  of  states 
and  desired  by  many  others. 

In  various  nations,  especially  in  North  America  and  in  France 
a  separate  course  of  instruction  in  morals  has  been  given  for 
more  than  twenty  years  in  public  and  private  schools,  which 
is  mostly  offered  as  a  substitute  for  courses  in  religion,  A 
number  of  text  books  have  already  been  produced  for  this  pur- 
pose and  this  method  of  moral  training  has  many  enthusiastic 
advocates.  Personally  I  have  had  no  opportunity  hitherto  to 
give  such  instruction  and  unfortunately  never  even  visited  any 
such  class.  Prof.  Felix  Adler  of  New  York,  the  spiritual 
father  of  the  "  ethical  movement "  which  arose  during  the 
eighties  of  last  centur}^  in  America,  and  even  extended  to  Ger- 
many and  Austria,  has  for  a  number  of  j^ears  been  the  head  of 
a  school  organized  according  to  the  principles  of  "  ethical  cul- 
ture." From  the  reports  concerning  the  course  of  study  and 
the  methods  pursued,  which  Prof.  Adler  was  kind  enough  to  fur- 
nish me  upon  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to  Vienna  several  years 
since,  I  gained  the  impression  that  his  school  does  actually 
develop  moral  character.  But  we  must  not  forget  that  in  this 
case  the  circumstances  are  peculiarly  favorable.  Prof.  Adler 
decides  absolutely  on  the  course  of  study,  on  the  admission  of 
pupils  and  likewise  chooses  his  own  corps  of  teachers.  His 
whole  school  is  organized  from  this  single  viewpoint.  There 
is  no  prescribed  amount  of  work  to  be  completed,  no  awe- 
inspiring  final  examination,  there  is  no  need  of  fitting  a  sepa- 
rate course  in  ethics  into  an  otherwise  fixed  curriculum,  but  the 
course  itself  as  well  as  the  discipline  as  a  whole,  all  together 
serve  this  single  purpose.  It  is  impossible  to  base  a  judgment 
on  the  value  of  a  course  in  ethics  on  such  exceptional  cases,  the 
existence  of  which  is  indeed  a  matter  for  gratification.  In 
France  the  result  of  moral  instruction,  w^hich  is  there  given 
universally,  depends  entirely  on  the  personality  of  the  teacher. 
From  the  reports  w-hich  I  have  received  I  can  simply  gather 
that  in  some  cases  there  is  a  lively  participation  of  the  pupils 
manifest,  and  in  others  a  tedious  monotony. 

'If  I  were  therefore  to  express  my  judgment  from  the  stand- 
point of  science  and  general  pedagogic  experience,  I  should  first 
of  all  emphasize  the  fact  that  reflection  on  moral  problems  is 
without  doubt  an  important  condition  for  the  development  of 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  215 

moral  character.  Insight  into  the  nature  of  personal  duty  and 
personal  dignity  is  —  a  fact  that  Socrates  attested  and  proved 
once  for  all  —  an  indispensable  means  to  moral  self-discipline. 
But  in  the  first  place  this  insight  cannot  be  acquired  until  in 
maturer  years  and,  in  the  second  place  it  is  ethically  effective 
only  as  it  has  been  preceded  by  an  intensive  training  of  the  will 
and  years  of  practical  moral  conduct.  It  seems  to  me  there- 
fore entirely  consistent  and  necessary  that  the  pupils  of  the 
advanced  classes  be  given  an  opportunity  to  acquire  a  clear  un- 
derstanding of  the  principles  of  moral  conduct.  But  in  my 
judgment  this  does  not  necessitate  a  separate  course  of  moral 
instruction.  There  are  a  number  of  subjects  in  our  courses  of 
study  where  this  can  be  done  without  straining  a  point.  The 
practical  educator  likewise  raises  the  following  objections  against 
the  introduction  of  separate  courses  in  morals.  Let  us  suppose 
this  new  subject  incorporated  in  our  course  of  study  for  the 
advanced  classes  under  the  name  of  ethics,  and  two  periods  a 
week  assigned  to  it.  The  pupil  w^ho  makes  a  habit  of  studying 
the  hour  schedule  for  the  following  day,  observes  to  one  of  his 
comrades:  "What  do  we  have  to-morrow?"  "Latin, 
Greek,  Mathematics  and  Ethics."  By  the  very  fact  that  it  is 
placed  on  a  level  with  other  subjects  of  instruction,  ethics 
already  loses  its  indispensably  unique  character.  They  are 
either  required  to  learn  something  for  these  periods,  in  which 
case  it  signifies  an  additional  unpleasant  burden,  or  they  are  not 
required  to  learn  anything  for  it  and  then  it  is  slightingly 
treated  as  of  little  value.  This  fact  of  educational  psychology 
is  doubtless  correct.  It  therefore  seems  more  practical  to  treat 
the  theoretical  considerations  of  ethical  principles  rather  casu- 
ally in  connection  with  the  subjects  with  which  it  is  intimately 
related. 

Here  it  is  first  of  all  the  business  of  the  teacher  of  religion 
to  inspire  the  pupils  to  thorough  and  profound  reflection  on 
their  moral  problems.  Religion  and  the  history  of  religion  fur- 
nish him  abundant  material.  If  he  is  personally  a  man  of  deep 
religious  experience  he  will  command  that  comforting  intensity 
which  is  the  only  thing  capable  of  implanting  the  cold  intel- 
lectual principle  into  the  depths  of  the  heart.  The  Holy 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  furnish  abundant 
opportunity  to  illustrate  and  vitalize  the  principles  of  ethics 


2i6  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

from  the  most  varied  viewpoints.  Of  course  the  teacher  of 
religion  who  would  regard  moral  education  as  his  most  im- 
portant task  would  not  dare  be  required  by  narrowing  course- 
prescriptions  to  devote  a  large  amount  of  time  to  liturgies, 
apologetics  and  church  history.  The  teacher  should  rather  be 
permitted  to  devote  his  whole  time  and  energy  to  letting  his 
pupils  feel  the  vital  force  of  the  fundamental  concepts  of  re- 
ligion, such  as  sin,  grace,  redemption,  faith,  active  righteousness, 
and  to  interpret  them  ethically.  With  what  effect,  e.g.,  could 
he  show  in  connection  with  Isaiah,  Chap.  58,  that  active 
charity,  positive  benevolence  is  more  pleasing  in  the  sight  of 
God,  and  consequently  morally  better,  than  the  most  scrupulous 
observance  of  prescribed  feasts.  How  beautifully  it  can  be 
shown  from  the  words  of  Job  (35,  7),  "  If  thou  be  righteous, 
what  givest  thou  him?  "  that  moral  conduct  above  all  else  gives 
peace  and  assurance  as  its  invariable  reaction  on  the  moral  man 
himself.  The  wilderness  temptations  of  Christ  should  indeed 
furnish  every  teacher  splendid  opportunity  to  let  the  pupils  find 
proofs  in  their  own  experience  that  man  really  does  not  live  by 
bread  alone,  but  that  self-sacrificing  devotion  to  some  higher 
ideal  is  the  only  thing  that  gives  him  new  energy  and  subjective 
happiness.  There  are  numerous  helps  and  books  on  method 
for  teaching  religion  in  this  way,  and  Foerster  likewise  insists 
repeatedly  that  religious  doctrines  be  conected  with  concrete 
experience  and  thus  utilized  for  actual  pedagogic  development. 
The  classic  literature,  both  poetry  and  prose  of  the  German 
and  the  ancient  languages,  furnish  a  further  opportunity  for  the 
thorough  discussion  of  ethical  problems.  I  have  shown  above 
how  I  have  been  accustomed  to  utilize  Plato's  Apology  in  this 
sense.  The  Antigone  of  Sophocles  is  likewise  well  adapted 
for  ethical  discussion.  Here  a  strong  personality,  actuated  by 
profound  ethico-religious  motives,  arrays  himself  against  the 
authority  of  the  state  as  embodied  in  Creon.  Exceedingly  in- 
teresting discussions  concerning  the  right  and  the  duty  of  the 
individual  to  criticise  existing  institutions  may  be  connected  with 
it.  Sophocles'  Philoctetiis,  Goethe's  Iphigenia  and  Grillparzer's 
Weh  dem.  der  lügt,  furnish  splendid  opportunity  to  explain  the 
nature  of  honesty  and  to  discuss  its  related  problems.  Lessing's 
Nathan  challenges  a  free  and  unprejudiced  discussion  of  the 
relation  of  religion  and  morality. 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  217 

The  new  subject  of  civics  has  in  recent  years  been  introduced 
in  Germany  and  Austria.  In  this  study  the  pupils  will  become 
familiar  with  the  rights  and  duties  of  a  citizen  and  get  an 
understanding  of  the  meaning  of  civil  life  under  constitutional 
government.  Here  there  must  be  occasion  at  each  step  to  touch 
upon  fundamental  ethical  problems.  I  am  even  disposed  to 
think  that  this  whole  subject  will  be  useless  and  ineffective  if 
this  is  not  the  case. 

And  finally,  introduction  to  philosophy,  which  has  been  taught 
in  Austria  for  more  than  sixty  years,  and  for  which  there  is  so 
much  demand  in  Germany,  readily  admits  of  such  treatment  as 
will  include  the  psychological  and  sociological  foundations  of 
ethics.  Even  if  the  suggestion  of  Jodl,  recommended  above, 
were  realized  there  would  be  abundant  opportunity  in  the  pre- 
sentation of  the  philosophy  of  Socrates,  Democritus,  Plato, 
Aristotle  and  the  Stoics  for  the  discussion  of  ethical  problems. 

In  my  judgment  moral  instruction  of  this  kind,  incorporated 
in  a  scientific  scheme  and  connected  with  the  concrete  experiences 
of  the  pupils  would  be  more  effective  than  if  we  were  to  make 
ethics  an  additional,  separate  subject  of  instruction.  However, 
the  efficiency  of  school  discipline  still  presupposes  that  it  be 
administered  after  the  manner  of  pastoral  care  rather  than  like 
that  of  a  police  system,  and  that  the  entire  program  of  instruc- 
tion be  permeated  w4th  the  ethico-social  spirit. 

So  much  for  the  ethical  problems  of  the  secondary  school. 
It  has  been  my  chief  purpose  to  offer  fundamental  principles 
and  suggestions.  Judging  from  personal  experience  this  is 
more  important  for  the  educated  and  assiduous  teacher  than 
the  presentation  of  concrete  methods  in  application  to  par- 
ticular cases.  Any  one  who  wishes  to  do  so  will  know  how  to 
apply  such  general  directions  in  conformity  with  his  own  in- 
dividuality and  in  accordance  with  the  needs  of  his  class. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  the  requirements  which  the  social  or- 
ganism impose  upon  the  secondary'  schools  and  accordingly  upon 
their  teachers.  This  discussion  is  intended  to  be  an  interpre- 
tation and  development  of  the  repeated  observations  concerning 
the  social  function  of  the  secondan-  school  (pp.  7,  22,  70). 
That  is  to  say,  we  shall  attempt  to  apply  the  sociological  point  of 
view,  which  we  found  of  service  in  the  elaboration  of  the 
concept  of   liberal   education,   to  the  school  itself   and   to   us 


2i8  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

teachers.  Nor  can  we  proceed  systematically  even  here,  but 
shall  have  to  be  satisfied  with  selecting  several  points  which  are 
in  part  fundamentally  important,  and  in  part  furnish  occasion 
for  concrete,  practical  suggestions. 


6.    The  Teacher  and  Society 

We  here  use  the  term  "  society  "  in  a  twofold  sense.  We 
have  in  mind  on  the  one  hand  the  social  organism  of  which  the 
school  and  its  teacher  are  articulate  members,  but  on  the 
other  hand  we  are  likewise  thinking  of  the  immediate  environ- 
ment of  the  teacher,  i.e.,  the  parents  of  his  pupils,  of  the  circle 
in  which  he  moves,  in  short,  "  society "  in  the  narrower, 
ordinary  sense.  The  relations  of  the  teacher  to  society  in  this 
twofold  sense  involve  a  variety  of  demands  and  problems  the 
most  important  of  which  we  shall  make  the  topic  of  a  brief 
discussion. 

The  social  function  of  the  secondary  school  in  all  civilized 
nations  consists  in  fitting  a  number  of  young  people  for  the 
filling  of  positions  of  responsibility  in  public  life  to  the  general 
satisfaction  of  all  concerned.  The  state,  which  in  this  respect 
is  almost  universally  the  authorized  agent  of  society,  demands 
that  the  future  clergymen  and  physicians,  the  judges,  attorneys 
and  administrative  officials,  the  teachers  of  the  advanced  schools, 
engineers  and  architects  take  a  systematic  course  of  intellectual 
and  moral  training  before  they  are  admitted  to  the  specialized 
professional  studies.  We  now  demand  the  same  training,  where 
agricultural  colleges  and  technical  schools  are  established,  like- 
wise for  other  vocations.  It  follows  from  this  as  the  inexorable 
logical  consequence  that  the  secondary  school,  whose  task  it  is  to 
prepare  for  these  leading  professions,  must  be  an  organ  of  social 
selection.  The  whole  organization  would  have  no  sociologi- 
cal meaning  if  it  were  not  so  conceived  that  only  the  capable 
and  industrious  should  enjoy  the  privileges  implied  in  their  di- 
ploma of  graduation. 

Zielinski,  in  his  excellent  volume  on  Die  Antike  und  wir, 
strongly  emphasized  this  social  function  of  the  secondary  school 
and  illustrated  it  very  effectively.  He  concludes  from  this 
that  the  school  must  be  difficult.     He  in  a  sense  would  invari- 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  219 

ably  stick  close  to  this  at  present  quite  premature  requirement. 
The  course  of  study  of  a  school  intended  to  develop  intellec- 
tual independence  and  moral  responsibility,  must  always  be 
so  organized  as  to  require  a  certain  amount  of  talent  and  in- 
dustry to  graduate.  Let  there  be  never  so  many  concessions 
to  the  desired  individualization,  to  the  free  election  of  courses 
in  the  advanced  classes,  let  the  methods  of  study  be  never  so 
much  improved,  we  shall  forever  have  to  demand  of  the  pupils 
of  the  secondary  school  that  they  put  forth  a  little  effort  and  that 
they  learn  to  do  independent  work.  Any  one  who  cannot  or 
will  not  do  this  must  be  told  by  the  faculty  in  good  time  that 
he  had  better  turn  to  some  other  calling,  one  which  is  better 
adapted  to  his  individuality.  That  is  to  say,  we  must  insist 
in  spite  of  all  objections  to  the  contrary  that  the  exercise  of 
selection  among  its  pupils  is  a  social  function  implied  in  the  na- 
ture of  the  secondary  school. 

This  selection  is  effected,  theoretically  at  least,  to  no  small 
degree  by  the  course  of  study.  But  as  teachers  we  have  no 
direct  influence  on  the  organization  of  the  course  of  study.  If 
the  Bureau  of  Education  with  its  supervisory  functions  expected 
nothing  more  from  us  than  the  strict  carr}^ing  out  of  the  pre- 
scribed courses,  i.e.,  to  repress  us  to  the  level  of  teaching-auto- 
mata, then  the  entire  function  .of  selection  would  rest  upon 
the  Bureau  alone.  There  have  indeed  actually  been  times  and 
conceptions  such  as  this.  But  at  present  it  is  universally  con- 
ceded that  every  schedule  of  courses  is  merely  a  dead  letter 
which  only  becomes  an  actual  educational  program  through  the 
vital  effort  of  the  teacher.  It  is  by  means  of  our  effort  there- 
fore that  the  educational  program  becomes  a  fact  and  for  this 
very  reason  we  should  regard  ourselves  likewise  as  organs  of  so- 
cial selection.  Inasmuch  as  the  problem  of  the  secondary  school 
can  be  solved  only  through  our  effort  it  is  highly  important  that 
we  constantly  strive  after  a  clearer  and  more  definite  under- 
standing of  its  high  purposes  in  all  its  bearings.  If  we  are  con- 
vinced that  the  secondary  school  has  an  important  social  function 
to  perform  and  feel  that  we  ourselves  are  responsible  for  the 
effective  discharge  of  that  function  we  shall  be  under  obliga- 
tion to  make  a  constant  study  of  the  program  of  studies  to  see 
whether  it  is  fitted  to  achieve  what  societ}'  demands  of  the 
secondary  school.     We  teachers  should  therefore  try  to  exert 


220  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

an  influence  on  the  organization  and  arrangement  of  the  pro- 
gram of  studies  and  it  is  in  this  sense  that  my  previously 
(p.  83)  established  suggestions  are  to  be  interpreted. 

And  even  in  the  practical  application  of  the  existing  program 
the  whole  conduct  of  the  school,  in  the  administration  of  dis- 
comes  us  to  be  constantly  aware  of  this  our  exalted  mission  in 
the  whole  conduct  of  the  school,  in  the  administration  of  dis- 
cipline, and  particularly  in  our  judgments  as  to  the  fitness  or 
unfitness  of  our  pupils  for  graduation.  The  intellectual  and 
moral  development  of  coming  generations  depends  on  the  con- 
scientiousness and  skill  with  which  we  cooperate  in  this  social 
selection.  If  wholly  incompetent  elements  pass  the  secondary 
school  or  even  such  as  haven't  learned  how  to  do  independent 
work,  we  cannot  escape  the  criticism  that  our  social  task  has 
been  but  very  poorly  discharged.  The  ideal  public  school 
teacher  is  the  man  who  imparts  the  subject  matter  of  the  course 
to  all  the  pupils.  The  ideal  secondary  teacher,  while  making 
an  honest  effort  to  advance  as  many  as  possible,  will  constantly 
keep  in  mind  his  duty  to  reject  the  incompetent  and  the  indolent 
at  the  proper  time.  In  the  exercise  of  this  function  we  must 
equally  reckon  with  both  talent  and  industry,  two  psychical 
dispositions  that  are  but  rarely  combined.  Industry  is  cer- 
tainly a  social  attribute  of  very  great  value  and  where  this  is 
highly  developed  we  can  afford  to  judge  less  rigorously.  But 
we  will  as  a  matter  of  course  never  lose  sight  of  our  fundamental 
aim,  the  training  to  independent  intellectual  effort,  the  attain- 
ment of  which  is  impossible  without  a  certain  amount  of  ability. 
If  we  are  charged  from  various  quarters  with  attaching  undue 
importance  to  industry,  we  can  calmly  ignore  it  and  base  our 
judgment  on  a  correct  estimate  of  the  social  significance  of  in- 
dustry. We  will  recall  an  expression  of  Franz  Grillparzer,  a 
poet,  who  said  of  himself:  "  Inspiration  was  my  god,  and  it 
has  remained  such,"  and  nevertheless  expresses  the  conviction 

"  Von  Himmel  träuft  herab  des  Landmanns  Segen, 
Doch  tränkt  den  Boden  auch  des  Landmann's  Schweiss, 
Ist  das  Talent  der  gottgesandte  Regen, 
Ist,  was  die  Frucht  gibt,  immer  nur  der  Fleiss." 

We  have  previously  shown  that  in  passing  judgment  on 
pupils,  particularly  when  it  involves  dismissal,  everything  must 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  221 

be  weighed  with  exceeding  care.  The  teacher  will  endeavor 
to  get  the  clearest  possible  idea  of  the  ability,  the  application 
and  the  whole  peculiarity  of  every  pupil  by  means  of  numerous 
personal  observations,  compare  his  own  conclusion  with  that 
of  his  colleagues  and  constantly  try  to  verify  his  judgment 
more  firmly.  If  he  constantly  keeps  in  mind  the  fact  that  his 
judgment  not  only  affects  the  individual  pupil,  but  that  it  is 
likewise  of  vast  significance  to  the  whole  social  organism,  he 
cannot  be  too  careful  in  balancing  his  judgments  and  in  the 
conscientiousness  of  his  conclusions.  He  will  employ  every 
possible  means  of  becoming  thoroughly  acquainted  with  his 
pupils,  and  then  m.ake  his  decisions  clearly  and  firmly  in  the 
full  light  of  his  responsibility. 

Association  with  the  parents  is  likewise  an  important  method 
of  getting  better  acquainted  with  the  pupils.  This  is  without 
doubt  a  part  of  our  social  duty,  which  sometimes  at  least  involves 
not  only  slight  inconveniences,  but  even  profound  mortifications. 
One  unfortunately  not  infrequently  discovers  with  us  here  in 
Austria  that  the  parents  entertain  an  almost  irreconcilable  hatred 
and  a  mortifying  distrust  against  the  teacher.  I  must  frankly 
confess  that  personally  I  have  not  suffered  much  from  this 
source,  but  I  have  witnessed  expressions  which  must  fill  every 
teacher  who  is  proud  of  his  calling  with  downright  alarm  and 
profound  anguish.  We  may  indeed  not  be  wholly  without 
blame  for  this  situation  which  is  so  thoroughly  disastrous  for 
the  school  and  its  success,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  not  always 
possible  to  avoid  the  appearance  of  hostility  described  in  all 
its  dangerousness  above  (p.  i8o  f).  But  the  fundamental  rea- 
son, at  least  according  to  my  experience,  for  this  situation  lies 
in  the  fact  that  there  is  much  confusion  of  understanding  of  the 
real  problem  of  the  secondary  school,  an  understanding  which  is 
not  infrequently  found  even  among  well  educated  parents.  In 
the  majority  of  cases  they  think  no  farther  than  that  their 
children  shall  get  through  and  participate  in  the  privileges  con- 
nected with  graduation  from  the  secondary  school.  On  the 
other  hand  it  is  but  rarely  that  they  inquire  into  the  extent  to 
which  the  intellectual  and  moral  development  of  the  children 
is  advanced,  and  verj'  few  understand  that  a  man  may  be  a  quite 
efficient  and  very  respectable  gentleman  even  if  he  possesses 
but  little  aptitude  for  abstract  thought,  such  as  is  presupposed  in 


222  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

the  study  of  languages  and  mathematics. 

It  is  nevertheless  our  duty  to  carefully  cultivate  the  acquaint- 
ance of  the  parents  of  our  pupils.  The  Austrian  scheme  of 
organization  offers  very  excellent  advice  on  this  social  inter- 
course, a  suggestion  quite  in  keeping  with  the  authority  of  the 
school.  "  The  school  is  neither  to  enforce  it,  nor  to  go  begging 
for  it,  but  simply  to  provide  for  its  possibility."  But  we  must 
at  present  go  somewhat  beyond  this  viewpoint.  We  must  not 
only  give  the  parents  a  chance  to  get  information  concerning  the 
progress  and  the  conduct  of  their  children,  we  must  in  fact 
seek  this  chance  and  give  the  parents  the  impression  that  mutual 
confidence  based  on  the  cooperation  of  the  school  and  the  home 
is  our  most  earnest  wish.  If  we  know  how  to  avoid  the  pro- 
fessional reserve  so  easily  acquired,  we  can  learn  a  great  deal 
from  these  interviews.  We  frequently  discover  many  an  item 
that  will  simplify  the  treatment  of  certain  pupils.  We  perceive 
that  we  have  made  an  error  in  our  judgment  of  the  peculiarity 
of  the  pupil  concerned  and  we  now  try  some  other  method  of 
approach.  I  have  abundant  personal  experiences  in  verifica- 
tion of  this  fact.  Especially  as  supervisor  (Ordinarius)  of  the 
freshman  class,  if  the  parents  visited  me,  say  after  about  two 
months  from  the  beginning  of  the  year,  I  frequently  said  that 
I  was  not  yet  sufficiently  acquainted  with  their  son ;  that  I  was 
unable  to  tell  whether  the  unfavorable  results  hitherto  were 
due  to  confusion,  indolence  or  lack  of  ability.  I  asked  of 
them  to  tell  me  about  the  young  man's  deportment  at  home, 
whether  he  found  the  subject  difficult,  whether  he  liked  going 
to  school,  with  whom  he  associated,  whether  he  was  a  leader 
or  rather  preferred  to  submit  to  others.  By  such  inquiries  I 
sometimes  was  enabled  to  approach  the  young  man  from  a  dif- 
ferent angle  and  thus  help  him  get  on.  If  the  parents  have 
once  placed  confidence  in  the  teacher  they  will  accept  his  ad- 
vice and  eventually  conclude  that  their  son  is  unfit  for  the 
school. 

The  inexperienced  teacher  will  have  many  embarrassing  ex- 
periences in  these  conferences.  For  example,  fathers  or  moth- 
ers will  come  and  overwhelm  him  with  courtesies  and  fre- 
quently assume  an  attitude  of  submissiveness,  even  to  down- 
right servility.  Yet  these  will  often  be  the  very  ones  who  will 
no  longer  even  recognize  the  teacher  after  the  pupil  in  question 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  223 

is  no  longer  in  his  class.  In  order  to  be  consistent  with  the 
facts  I  must  say  that  this  has  occurred  to  me  but  seldom.  But 
the  few  names  which  I  here  have  in  mind  I  can  recall  even  to- 
day. This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  at  the  beginning  of  my  pro- 
fessional career  I  had  the  weakness  of  worrying  over  such 
nonsense.  But  if  a  man  has  in  the  course  of  time  attained 
to  a  higher  conception  of  his  profession  he  will  neither  feel 
flattered  by  submissiveness  nor  wounded  by  discourtesies.  These 
are  trifles  which  a  man  soon  learns  to  ignore.  The  not  infre- 
quent cases  in  which  the  parents  appeal  to  some  prominent  patron 
are  more  embarrassing.  A  father  is  apt  to  say,  "  I  am  very 
anxious  that  my  son  shall  graduate  at  the  gjmnasium  because 
I  know  that  he  will  then  have  smooth  sailing."  Such  a  case 
requires  great  caution.  A  man  dare  not  allow  himself  to  be 
affected  by  such  arguments,  and  yet  he  dare  not  give  vent 
to  any  disparaging  observations,  as  he  may  well  feel  inclined 
to  do.  I  have  generally  replied  to  such  insinuations:  "  It 
is  indeed  very  nice  for  your  son  that  his  promotion  is  simplified, 
but  if  he  can't  do  anything  himself,  his  patrons  will  likewise 
be  unable  to  assist  him." 

In,  the  last  analysis  the  important  matter  is  this,  namely, 
that  the  parents  be  convinced  that  the  teacher  is  a  friend  and 
not  an  enemy  of  the  pupils.  I  have  frequently  quoted  the 
prophecy  of  Ezekiel  where  Jehovah  makes  him  say:  "  I  have 
no  pleasure  in  the  death  of  the  wicked ;  but  that  the  wicked  turn 
from  his  way  and  hve "  (Ch.  33,  11).  The  pupils  would 
tell  this  at  home,  as  I  frequently  gathered  from  later  reports, 
and  in  this  way  the  parents  learned  that  my  intentions  were 
good.  I  have  consequently  got  along  pleasantly  with  the  par- 
ents throughout  my  whole  professional  career  and  the  cases 
previously  cited  were  merely  incidental  exceptions. 

There  is  still  another  rather  delicate  point  which  I  do  not 
wish  to  ignore  entirely.  Many  parents,  particularly  those  in 
more  fortunate  economic  circumstances,  sometimes  try  to  get 
into  close  touch  with  their  son's  teacher  in  a  social  way.  A 
man  receives  invitations  to  supper,  to  a  theater  box,  or  a  visit 
during  vacation.  And  sometimes  even  theater  and  opera  tick- 
ets are  freely  sent  to  the  house.  It  seems  like  a  very  innocent 
affair,  but  I  must  urge  my  colleagues  to  the  greatest  caution. 
Such  slight  attentions  as  these  do  not  greatly  differ  in  their 


224  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

effect  from  presents  offered  with  the  definite  purpose  of  win- 
ning favor.  Attempts  at  bribery  have  become  more  rare, 
thank  God,  but  they  have  not  yet  entirely  ceased.  Every  kind 
of  bribery,  no  matter  whether  it  appears  in  a  coarse  or  mild 
form,  "  blindeth  the  wise  and  perverteth  the  words  of  the 
righteous"  (Exodus  23,  8).  In  his  third  Philippic  oration 
Demosthenes  has  beautifully  set  forth  this  effect  of  the  irregular 
acceptance  of  gifts  in  the  following  passage:  "If  you  place 
money  on  one  side  of  the  balance  it  sinks  immediately  and  the 
judgment  is  quickly  drawn  down  with  it."  One  thing  is  cer- 
tain, namely,  that  our  subjective  independence  suffers  from 
every  kind  of  excessive  intimacy.  We  have  the  very  best  inten- 
tions to  show  no  prejudice  notwithstanding  these  relations,  but 
only  to  discover  the  sophistry  of  the  human  intellect.  Argu- 
ments favorable  to  the  pupil  concerned  arise  capriciously  and  it  is 
next  to  impossible  to  exercise  strict,  absolutely  impartial  jus- 
tice under  such  circumstances.  Any  one  therefore  who  attaches 
any  importance  not  only  to  having  a  clean  external  record,  but 
would  likewise  wish  to  remain  unchallenged  before  the  judg- 
ment bar  of  his  own  soul,  his  own  conscience,  any  one  who 
has  adopted  Iphigenia's  maxim:  "The  unsullied  heart  alone 
finds  joy,"  will  do  well  to  exercise  great  caution  in  social  inter- 
course with  his  pupil's  parents  and  constantly  practice  a  certain 
degree  of  reserve. 

The  same  principle  applies  to  the  conduct  of  the  teacher  out- 
side the  school.  We  must  never  forget  that  we  are  trainers  of 
youth  and  that  upon  entering  our  profession,  no  matter  how 
young  we  may  be,  we  must  constantly  bear  a  certain  degree 
of  dignity.  Here  we  should  take  Goethe's  statement  as  our 
motto : 

"  Der  kann  sich  manchen  Wünsch  gewähren, 
Der  kalt  sich  selbst  und  seinem  Wollen  lebt. 
Wer  andere  wohl  zu  leiten  strebt, 
Muss  fähig  sein,  viel  zu  entbehren." 

We  do  not  mean  to  say  that  we  should  timidly  refrain  from 
social  fellowship  entirely,  confine  ourselves  to  association  with 
our  colleagues  and  lead  an  isolated  life.  This  would  not  be 
to  the  advantage  of  our  profession  and  still  less  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  school.     We  should  indeed  acquaint  ourselves  with 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  225 

real  life  in  order  that  we  may  likewise  be  in  position  to  act  as 
guides  and  advisers  to  our  pupils  in  this  respect.  We  can 
even  accomplish  much  towards  the  interpretation  of  life  in 
the  cafe  and  the  restaurant  and  thus  materially  enlarge  the 
sphere  of  our  pedagogic  activity.  But  even  aside  from  this 
we  are  by  no  means  condemned  to  abstain  from  pleasure  and 
enjoyment.  We  should  rather  participate  in  the  undertakings 
of  the  educated  classes  of  the  community  in  which  we  serve. 
We  may  dance,  skate,  play  tennis,  go  skiing,  play  billiards 
and,  with  thoroughly  reliable  people,  even  cards.  But  it  is 
exceedingly  important  that  we  never  entirely  forget  our  po- 
sition. There  must  constantly  be  a  certain  measure  of  sub- 
jective control  manifest.  This  applies  particularly  to  the  use 
of  alcohol.  A  teacher  who  is  seen  drunk  and  staggering 
towards  his  home  has  without  doubt  dropped  considerably  in  the 
estimation  of  the  parents  and  pupils.  On  this  point  it  were 
highly  desirable  if  all  teachers  would  familiarize  themselves 
with  the  scientific  arguments  of  the  total  abstinence  move- 
ment, and,  after  having  convinced  themselves  of  the  absolute 
harmfulness  of  this  means  of  indulgence,  seek  to  exert  an  in- 
fluence in  this  direction  on  pupils  and  parents. 

The  faculty  of  an  institution  situated  in  one  of  the  smaller 
provincial  cities  should  regard  it  a  matter  of  duty  to  con- 
tribute to  the  uplift  of  the  intelligence  of  the  community  and 
to  inspire  interest  in  literary,  artistic  and  scientific  affairs. 
The  people  appreciate  it,  as  I  can  testify  from  experience. 
The  faculty  thus  acquires  a  social  position  in  the  community 
which  makes  it  an  easy  matter  for  each  teacher  to  maintain  his 
dignity.  He  is  everj^vhere  received  with  great  respect,  peo- 
ple expect  interesting  information  from  him.  If  he  visits  a 
cafe  or  restaurant  people  ask  questions  concerning  the  questions 
of  the  day,  and  thus  an  atmosphere  develops  that  makes  it 
well  nigh  impossible  for  the  teacher  to  compromise  himself. 

If  we  advance  from  single  suggestions  to  larger  projects, 
such  as  instituting  a  course  of  popular  lectures,  organizing 
reading  circles,  founding  societies  for  the  uplift  of  the  general 
culture  of  the  city,  the  respect  of  the  citizens  for  the  faculty 
and  the  individual  professors  increases  and  one  is  no  longer 
under  necessit}'^  of  exercising  the  same  amount  of  reserve  in 
social  intercourse.     It  thus  appears  even  here,  as  has  been  the 


220  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

case  so  often  before  in  this  book,  that  positive  impulses,  filling 
the  mind  with  concrete  materials,  and  with  definite  purposes 
operates  far  more  certainly  and  beneficiall)^  for  the  solution  of 
our  problems  and  the  maintenance  of  our  position  than  the 
constant  introduction  of  a  cumbersome  restraining  apparatus. 
If  we  survey  the  problems  of  the  teacher  elaborated  in  the 
whole  book  we  must  acknowledge  that  we  have  grown  into 
these  problems  only  as  we  have  been  indefatigably  disciplining 
ourselves  in  this  direction.  But  many  fail  to  attain  a  clear 
appreciation  of  their  exalted  pedagogic  task  until  late,  after 
having  spent  a  number  of  years  in  the  profession.  They  have 
attended  the  university  for  the  purpose  of  devoting  themselves 
to  science,  and  they  regard  science  afterwards  as  well  as  before 
as  the  only  worthy  object  of  their  efforts.  Or  perhaps  they 
have  chosen  the  teaching  profession  because  here  a  man  may 
quickly  earn  a  living,  and  they  are  satisfied  with  having  fulfilled 
the  requirements  of  their  superiors  and  are  not  otherwise  dis- 
turbed. Then  if  they  eventually  discover  that  the  office  of 
secondary  teacher  involves  more  than  this,  it  is  often  too  late  to 
thoroughly  readjust  the  accustomed  mode  of  thought.  If  we 
would  therefore  attain  a  secondary  teacher's  profession  which 
will  appreciate  its  exalted  task  and  be  prepared  to  devote  its 
whole  energy  to  this  task,  greater  care  will  have  to  be  shown  in 
the  training  of  teachers  than  has  hitherto  been  the  case.  We 
shall  therefore  briefly  state,  as  the  conclusion  of  our  exposition, 
how  the  pedagogic  preparation  urgently  required  of  teachers 
for  our  profession  should  be  conducted  and  provided  for. 

7.     The  Pedagogic  Preparation  of  the  Teacher 

I  have  expressed  myself  in  detail  on  the  scientific  training  of 
the  teacher  in  the  third  chapter.  I  made  reference  to  peda- 
gogic preparation  in  that  connection  only  in  so  far  as  the  theo- 
retical study  of  pedagogy  was  described  as  the  general  con- 
cern of  all  teachers.  In  the  fourth  chapter,  where  our  didactical 
problems  formed  the  theme  of  our  discussion  I  was  particu- 
larly concerned  to  direct  the  attention  of  our  present  genera- 
tion of  active  teachers  to  the  most  important  principles  of  in- 
struction and  to  furnish,  in  a  brief  survey  of  the  special  meth- 
ods in  the  various  branches,  useful  suggestions  and  plans.     On 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  227 

the  point  of  the  teacher's  pedagogic  training  I  have  however 
thus  far  only  spoken  incidentally  and  nowhere  have  I  said 
anything  as  to  the  method  and  to  what  extent  I  regard  it  neces- 
sary. I  have  postponed  this  explanation  for  the  simple  reason 
that  it  seemed  to  me  important  that  it  should  be  preceded  by  an 
exposition  of  the  ethical  and  social  problems  of  the  teacher. 
Now  that  we  have  the  whole  list  of  functions  required  of  us 
in  full  view,  we  can  readily  see  that  a  young  man  cannot  so  eas- 
ily adapt  himself  by  his  own  genius  to  such  a  responsible  office, 
one  that  demands  such  peculiar  syntheses  and  such  a  variety  of 
capacities.  We  must  rather  assist  him  in  every  conceivable 
way  and  try  with  all  our  might  to  devise  methods  and  ar- 
rangements which  will  make  it  possible  for  him  and  eventually 
impel  him  to  prepare  himself  in  every  respect  for  his  future 
profession  of  teaching. 

The  superintendents  of  education  of  Germany  and  Austria 
have  for  some  time  already  recognized  the  necessity  of  an 
intensive  pedagogical  training  for  the  teachers  of  the  advanced 
schools  as  indicated  above  (p.  13),  and  founded  various  in- 
stitutions to  meet  this  need.  All  of  these  institutions  are  based 
on  the  principle  that  the  university  years  are  to  be  devoted 
to  scientific  training  and  that  the  practical  introduction  into  the 
teaching  profession  shall  not  begin  until  after  the  examination 
in  pedagogics.  The  prospective  teacher  shall  be  required,  in 
addition  to  the  professional  branches,  to  attend  courses  in 
philosophy  and  pedagogy  at  the  university.  The  candidate 
shall  give  evidence  of  his  attainments  in  theoretical  principles 
either  by  a  written  dissertation  or  an  actual  examination. 

Here  in  Austria,  by  the  enactment  of  1897,  the  candidates 
were  required  to  prepare  for  two  colloquies,  one  in  philosophy 
and  one  in  pedagogy,  which  however  has  been  modified  by  an 
examination  ordinance  so  that  now  an  examination  in  peda- 
gogy is  all  that  is  required.  This  examination  shall  cover 
the  general  theory'  of  education  together  with  its  psychological 
and  logical  (not  the  ethical)  fundamental  principles,  and  the 
histor>'  of  education  since  the  sixteenth  century. 

As  to  the  institution  of  the  colloquies  I  have  been  in  position 
during  the  past  fourteen  years  to  gather  extraordinarily  rich 
experiences,  since  I  have  had  to  conduct  upwards  of  five  thou- 
sand such   examinations   during  this   period.     Coming  at   the 


228  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

close  of  each  semester  it  was  a  very  exhausting  task.  I  must 
acknowledge  however  that  this  institution  was  by  no  means 
useless  and  it  could  easily  have  been  developed  to  still  greater 
effectiveness.  The  majority  of  the  students  who,  e.g.,  reported 
on  a  course  in  introduction  to  philosophy  were  well  able  to 
discuss  the  main  tendencies  of  philosophy  intelligently,  could 
distinguish  between  the  problems  of  epistemology  and  meta- 
physics and  showed  considerable  familiarity  with  the  terminol- 
ogy. Those  who  took  the  examinations  in  psychology  got 
even  greater  advantage  for  their  future  vocation  from  it. 
Finally  for  the  past  eight  years  several  hundred  students  who 
attended  my  course  in  practical  secondary  school  pedagogy  each 
summer  semester  reported  for  colloquy  on  it.  The  majority 
of  them  knew  the  pedagogic  principles  which  I  had  elaborated 
quite  well  and  carried  a  number  of  practical  suggestions  with 
them  into  their  life's  work.  We  shall  have  to  await  results  to 
see  whether  the  present  examination  system  will  produce  better 
results. 

It  is  necessary  at  any  rate  that  the  prospective  teachers  should 
likewise  receive  pedagogical  training  for  their  future  profession 
even  at  the  university,  and  I  am  disposed  to  think  that  con- 
siderable more  should  be  done  in  this  respect  than  there  is  at 
present.  Even  in  the  first  edition  of  this  work  and  afterwards 
in  a  brochure  on  "  Unsere  Mittelschule  "  I  strongly  advocated 
the  plan  that  the  prospective  teachers  be  required  to  visit  an  in- 
stitution and  observe  practical  teaching  during  the  last  two  years 
of  their  university  course,  to  draft  hour  schedules  and  teach 
test  lessons  in  the  presence  of  a  committee.  Immediately  fol- 
lowing these  lessons  they  are  to  be  made  the  subject  of  discus- 
sion and  criticism.  These  suggestions,  which  I  have  also  ad- 
vocated at  teachers'  conferences,  have  called  forth  vigorous  op- 
position from  very  respectable  quarters.  Before  I  again  state 
and  justify  my  conclusions  let  me  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  Prof.  Willman  conducted  such  exercises  with  splendid 
success  for  many  years  at  Prague  in  connection  with  his 
seminar,  and  that  these  exercises  were  then  continued  in  the 
same  manner  by  Willman's  successor.  Prof.  Alois  Höfler. 

In  the  first  place  it  is  objected  that  in  directing  the  university 
students  to  practical  exercises  we  withdraw  them  from  science 
and  thus  cut  short  the  time  required  for  their  special  branch 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  229 

which  is  so  imperatively  necessary.  Some  think  moreover  that 
the  students  in  the  midst  of  their  scientific  studies  would  take 
no  interest  in  practical  instruction  such  as  pedagogy.  Then 
too  many  practical  educators  think  that  the  orderly  progress 
of  regular  instruction  would  suffer  undue  confusion  and  in- 
terruption by  the  continuous  casual  visitors  and  test  lessons. 
Finally  the  majority  of  school  teachers  regard  acquaintance 
with  the  technique  of  instruction  and  of  school  administration 
as  a  practical  introduction  to  the  teaching  profession.  They 
accordingly  likewise  quietly  assume  that  every  one  will  get 
enough  of  this  from  his  own  experience.  On  this  last  point 
they  are  undoubtedly  correct.  If  the  practical  preparation  for 
teaching  were  nothing  more  than  the  acquisition  of  technical  ac- 
complishments and  methodical  stratagems,  then  there  would  cer- 
tainly be  no  need  for  formal  organizations  and  institutions.  In 
that  case  the  formal  arrangement  of  the  "  extended  year  of 
probation "  were  indeed  the  most  superfluous  thing  in  the 
world.  And  so  precisely  it  would  appear  to  the  majority  of 
the  candidates,  who  actually  never  get  a  clear  idea  of  what  is  in- 
tended, and  do  not  care  to  understand  why  there  should  be  so 
much  ado  about  such  simple  matters. 

My  conception  of  the  nature  and  significance  of  such  practical 
exercises  is  entirely  different.  Permit  me  to  briefly  outline  this 
conception  and  verify  it.  The  objections  brought  against  such 
exercises  will  thus,  I  trust,  refute  themselves. 

The  object  of  the  preparation  which  I  am  recommending  is 
by  no  means  intended,  or  at  least  not  chiefly,  to  be  a  student 
drill  in  the  art  of  teaching.  I  regard  these  exercises  rather, 
above  all  else,  as  moral  and  as  scientific  discipline  of  the  future 
teacher.  In  the  first  place  the  student  is  to  learn  to  get  the 
viewpoint  of  the  teacher.  Even  by  the  casual  attendance  he 
will  come  to  regard  the  class  period  in  an  entirely  new  light  from 
that  to  which  he  had  previously  been  accustomed.  Then  if 
he  is  given  the  subject  of  a  test  lesson  about  two  weeks  in 
advance  and  is  required  to  prepare  thoroughly  himself  on  it, 
he  will  doubtless  discover  gaps  in  his  scientific  training.  A 
thorough  examination  say  of  a  passage  from  Cassar  which  is 
to  be  interpreted,  will  reveal  the  fact  that  he  hasn't  a  sufficiently 
clear  conception  of  relative  clauses,  that  his  knowledge  of  con- 
ditions in  Rome  in  the  year  52   (the  beginning  of  the  seventh 


230  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

book  of  the  Gallic  Wars)  is  not  sufficiently  exact,  that  the 
precise  significance  of  this  or  that  mode  of  speech  does  not 
occur  to  him.  The  approaching  test  lesson,  the  fear  of  expos- 
ing himself  in  the  presence  of  his  colleagues,  will  certainly  induce 
him  to  fill  out  all  these  gaps  conscientiously,  and  he  will  thus 
gain  greatly  in  subjective  assurance. 

But  the  moral  effect  of  every  test  lesson  seems  to  me  of 
still  greater  importance.  We  assume  it  as  granted  that  it  is 
not  the  pupils  who  are  responsible  for  the  imperfect  results  of 
the  instruction,  but  the  teachers.  He  is  plainly  and  frankly 
told  in  the  conference  which  immediately  follows  the  lesson, 
that  he  had  given  occasion  for  incorrect  answers  by  an  error 
in  the  formulation  of  his  question.  His  attention  is  called  to 
the  fact  that  too  few  of  the  pupils  actively  participated  in  the 
recitation  and  that  consequently  a  part  of  the  class  sat  there 
unoccupied.  He  discovers  that  he  moved  either  too  rapidly  or 
too  slowly,  that  he  failed  to  inspire  the  interest  of  the  pupils  suf- 
ficiently and  that  consequently  there  was  not  sufficient  attention 
manifest  in  the  class.  Sometimes  he  is  also  shown  actual  mis- 
takes and  thus  acquainted  with  his  lack  of  preparation.  If 
the  student  knows  that  his  permission  to  take  the  final  examina- 
tion admitting  him  to  the  profession  depends  on  the  results  in 
the  test  lesson  he  will  take  himself  in  hand  quite  differently  the 
next  time.  And  perhaps  —  and  this  will  largely  depend  on  the 
skill  of  the  man  in  charge  of  these  exercises  —  he  will  acquire  a 
genuine  interest  in  the  business  which  is  new  to  him.  He  will 
discover  that  a  man  really  can  never  know  enough  for  these  lit- 
tle ones,  and  further  that  one  must  study  their  peculiarities 
and  hence  needs  to  know  psychology.  He  may  perhaps  even 
soon  learn  to  know  the  joy  which  a  teacher  experiences  when 
he  succeeds  in  arousing  the  mind  of  youths  and  inspires  them  to 
genuine  responsiveness.  This  much  is  certain  however,  he  will 
learn  what  thorough  preparation  means  and  what  a  man  must 
require  of  himself  in  this  respect.  All  of  this  will  be  impressed 
upon  him  by  concrete  incidents,  by  definite  experiences  with  all 
the  color  of  individuality  and  personal  touch.  And  the  effect 
will  be  quite  different  from  the  study  of  general  principles,  no 
matter  how  beautifully  they  are  presented. 

Such  psychical  influences  and  moral  transformations  can  be 
accomplished   with  students  more   readily   and   likewise   more 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  231 

thoroughly  than  with  probationers.  The  probationer  has  passed 
his  final  examination  and  may  even  have  his  doctor's  degree. 
He  feels  that  he  is  a  young  man  who  has  completed  his  studies 
and  it  is  now  his  business  to  apply  his  knowledge.  He  is  now 
placed  in  charge  of  men  who  are  older  in  years  and  experience 
than  he,  but  with  whom  he  feels  a  sense  of  equality  so  far  as 
pertains  to  academic  degrees  and  scientific  training.  If  such 
men  require  him,  e.g.,  to  read  a  book  on  the  general  theory  of 
pedagogy  or  on  special  methods,  it  impresses  him  as  a  bit  of 
distasteful  tutelage.  He  sees  no  necessity  for  this  because  the 
art  of  teaching  what  he  has  learned  does  not  appear  to  him 
beset  with  any  great  difficulties.  And  since  it  may  easily  come 
to  pass  that  he  does  not  concede  the  scientific  superiority  of  the 
men  who  are  inducting  him  into  his  profession,  he  will  perhaps 
outwardly  conform  with  their  requirements,  but  subjectively 
feel,  that  this  whole  matter  which  is  now  imposed  on  him  and 
which  he  must  discharge  is  of  little  or  no  advantage  to  him. 
And  it  involves  a  number  of  externals  besides.  The  position  of 
the  committee  of  eleven  in  relation  to  the  pupils  on  the  extended 
year  of  probation  is  by  no  means  a  pleasant  one.  If  the  com- 
mittee of  teachers  have  sufficient  tact  to  treat  the  candidates 
assigned  to  them  as  younger  colleagues,  the  situation  may  at 
least  become  tolerable.  But  there  is  always  room  for  the  fear 
that  it  may  sometimes  fail,  and  then  the  inevitable  result  fol- 
lows, namely,  that  the  pupils  regard  the  candidates  as  sub- 
ordinates with  whom  they  are  permitted  all  sorts  of  privileges. 
The  young  man  does  not  always  know  how  to  help  himself 
and  may  thus  be  embittered  and  come  to  the  point  of  regarding 
the  pupils  not  as  subjects  committed  to  him  for  instruction,  but 
as  on  the  same  plane  with  himself  or  sometimes  even  as  superior 
enemies  against  whom  he  must  defend  himself  by  every  means 
at  his  command.  But  we  have  previously  shown  in  detail  how 
fatal  such  a  conception  of  his  position  is  for  the  teacher  and 
the  pupils  alike.  The  probationer,  who,  as  we  have  observed, 
regards  himself  as  a  mature  man,  moreover  is  far  less  receptive 
of  instruction  and  criticism  than  the  student.  He  m.ay  per- 
haps try  to  please  the  committee  by  learning  pedagogic  tricks, 
but  his  whole  conception  of  the  profession,  his  relation  to  the 
pupils,  his  sense  of  responsibility,  his  views  concerning  the  re- 
lation of  science  and  pedagogy,  in  short  his  whole  mind  is  no 


232  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

longer  so  plastic,  no  longer  so  capable  of  training  as  that  of 
the  student.  Open  resistance  towards  instruction  and  ad- 
monition is  not  very  common,  although  it  does  sometimes 
occur.  But  the  subjective  resistance,  w^hich  only  the  trained 
psychologist  recognizes;  the  countenance,  which  betrays  the 
feeling  that  he  knows  all  this  better  himself ;  the  passivity,  which 
renders  all  influence  more  difficult;  everyone  who  has  had 
anything  to  do  with  probationers  will  recognize  all  these  things 
from  his  personal  experiences. 

These  things  are  entirely  different  in  the  case  of  students. 
They  maintain  that  they  are  still  in  the  making  and  they  are 
consequently,  according  to  the  famous  poetic  phrase,  "  forever 
grateful."  They  are  open  to  new  ideas  and  permit  them  to 
have  their  full  effect.  They  are  accustomed  from  the  practice 
of  the  seminar  to  have  their  work  subjected  to  severe  and  de- 
tailed criticism  both  by  professors  and  their  colleagues.  And 
the  majority  of  the  students  will  be  glad  for  a  chance  to  become 
intimately  acquainted  with  the  various  functions  of  their  future 
vocation.  It  will  be  entirely  new  to  them  and  consequently 
very  interesting.  They  have  not  as  yet  formed  any  clear  idea 
of  their  calling.  They  approach  the  matter  with  a  certain 
degree  of  curiosity  and  readily  follow  the  course  of  the  de- 
velopment. They  regard  the  test  lessons  somewhat  like  the 
interpretations  or  reviews  of  the  seminar.  They  make  careful 
preparation  because  they  know  they  will  be  closely  criticised. 
In  the  conferences  which  immediately  follow  the  lessons  they 
are  open  to  objections  and  suggestions.  They  will  frequently 
defend  their  position  vigorously  against  the  criticism  of  their 
colleagues  and  even  in  this  way  penetrate  more  deeply  into 
didactic  principles.  It  will  gradually  become  self-evident  that 
it  is  their  fault  if  the  pupils  show  no  interest  and  fail  to  par- 
ticipate actively  in  the  lesson.  They  will  concentrate  all  their 
pride,  their  whole  mental  energy,  to  inspire  the  pupils,  to  get 
correct  answers  to  their  questions  and  to  see  to  it  that  the  class 
actually  retains  something  from  the  work  covered.  This  en- 
tirely new  attitude  of  mind,  this  concentration  on  the  pedagogic 
purpose,  this  subjective  transition  from  the  school-room  desk 
to  the  teacher's  chair  seems  to  me  by  far  the  most  important 
preparation  for  our  profession.  All  these  psychical  processes 
may  be  more  easily  and  more  effectively  secured  with  students 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  233 

than  with  probationers. 

Parallel  with  this  radical  transition  which  must  take  place 
if  the  former  pupil  is  to  be  transformed  into  a  teacher  a  number 
of  other  not  inconsiderable  advantages  accrue  from  such  ex- 
ercises. The  student  acquires  a  sense  of  freedom  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  class.  The  confused  mass  eventually  arranges  itself 
automatically  into  a  number  of  individuals  of  varj'ing  individ- 
uality and  talent.  He  learns  to  speak  with  clearness  and  pre- 
cision. He  discovers  that  a  man  must  have  complete  self-pos- 
session during  the  class  period,  and  in  this  way  likewise  acquires 
an  exceedingly  effective  discipline  of  his  subjective  self  in  his 
new  position. 

I  am  therefore  convinced  that  the  practical  introduction  into 
our  profession  should  begin  in  the  university,  because  there  it 
will  be  more  effective  and  it  can  actually  accomplish,  what  we 
so  much  need,  the  production  of  the  moral  dispositions  which 
are  absolutely  indispensable  for  our  profession.  I  have  already 
observed  that  scientific  training  does  not  suffer  by  this  mode  of 
procedure  but  that  it  is  rather  fostered  from  within.  And  now 
in  order  to  answer  the  objections  of  practical  teachers  I  will 
briefly  describe  the  arrangement  of  such  exercises  as  I  have  in 
mind. 

The  course  of  study  for  the  secondary  teacher  covers  four 
years  with  us.  In  Germany  the  old  three  year  course  is  still  in 
vogue,  but  in  actual  practice  the  majority  of  candidates  cer- 
tainly spend  four  years  at  the  university.  I  therefore  construe 
my  plan  on  the  basis  of  a  four  year  course.  Of  these  four 
years  the  first  two  are  to  be  exclusively  devoted  to  the  scientific 
study  of  the  special  subject  chosen.  Here  every  one  may  study 
as  if  he  meant  sometime  to  enter  upon  a  university  professor- 
ship. The  young  man  is  to  throw  himself  into  his  science  with 
all  the  enthusiasm  at  his  command.  He  shall  not  permit  him- 
self to  be  affected  by  any  considerations  concerning  his  future 
profession.  He  shall  study,  as  far  as  possible,  whatever  and 
with  whom  he  pleases  guided  only  by  his  own  scientific  inter- 
ests. These  two  years  must  reveal  whether  he  feels  disposed 
to  become  a  scholar,  an  investigator,  whether  he  has  the  ability 
and  is  called  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  science  and  only  to 
science,  or  whether  his  inclinations  and  talents  impel  him  to- 
wards the  profession  of  teaching.     He  should  come  to  a  decision 


234  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

by  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  semester.  Students  should  be  de- 
livered from  the  false  impression  that  there  is  still  plenty  of  time 
to  become  a  teacher  after  admission  to  a  university  professor- 
ship has  failed.  They  should  know  that  the  teacher's  vocation 
is  no  less  dignified,  but  only  differently  constituted  and  re- 
quires difterent  training. 

In  case  a  student  decides  upon  the  teaching  profession,  he 
must  report  to  the  professor  of  pedagogics,  participate  in  the 
theoretical  exercises  in  the  pedagogical  seminar  and  enroll  in 
the  list  of  candidates  for  the  teaching  profession.  The  pro- 
fessor shall  then  make  provision  for  each  of  his  students  to  visit 
periods  of  actual  teaching,  that  he  be  required  to  draft  hour 
schedules  and  make  reports  on  what  he  has  seen  and  heard. 
This  rather  receptive  exercise  will  not  claim  much  of  his  time 
and  the  student  will  be  able  to  continue  his  specialized  scien- 
tific studies  as  before.  In  the  second  semester  of  the  third 
or  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  year  at  the  university  he 
should  begin  the  test-lessons  after  the  manner  described 
above.  On  these  lessons  he  must  take  careful  notes.  Every 
student  shall  have  given  some  eight  or  ten  lessons  before 
being  admitted  to  examination.  The  clause,  "  practical  peda- 
gogic ability,"  is  to  be  added  to  his  certificate,  and  only  such 
as  can  show  an  adequate  amount  of  work  under  this  head 
shall  be  admitted  to  the  final  professional  examination.  If 
the  efforts  at  teaching  repeatedly  fail  entirely,  we  should 
strongly  advise  the  young  man  to  seek  some  other  profession, 
and  eventually  refuse  him  admission  to  the  professional  examina- 
tion. This  will  not  often  be  necessary,  but  it  would  still  be 
possible  in  this  way  to  prevent  the  wholly  unfit  from  entering 
the  profession. 

A  number  of  colleagues,  who  hold  metropolitan  positions, 
interpose  the  objection  to  this  suggestion  of  which  we  have  made 
previous  mention  and  for  which  I  must  confess  there  is  some  jus- 
tification. These  gentlemen  think  that  in  case  of  a  large  number 
of  candidates  such  test  lessons  would  of  necessity  occur  quite  fre- 
quently and  that  thus  the  uniform  conduct  be  considerably  dis- 
turbed. I  can  readily  understand  w^hy  the  regularly  appointed 
teachers  should  defend  themselves  against  such  disturbances. 
Our  time  is  closely  calculated  and  we  have  pressing  need  for  all 
of  it.     We  must  utilize  it  energetically  and  economically  if  we 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  235 

are  to  cover  the  ground  required.  And  just  for  this  very  reason 
I  do  not  intend  by  any  means  that  these  test  lessons  shall  be 
crowded  into  the  regular  school  course.  If  the  purpose  which 
I  would  realize  by  these  exercises  is  to  be  actually  attained 
model  secondary  schools  will  have  to  be  established  in  every 
university  city  similar  to  those  already  long  in  existence  for 
the  elementary  and  public  schools.  The  very  best  teachers  must 
be  secured  for  these  institutions  and  in  addition  the  number  of 
pupils  must  not  be  too  great  and  if  possible  they  should  be  select. 
But  so  long  as  we  do  not  have  such  institutions  we  should 
pursue  the  method  so  successfully  operated  by  Willman  and 
Höfler.  Invite  a  number  of  pupils  of  their  own  free  choice  to 
come  to  an  institution,  whose  principal  will  take  an  interest 
in  the  matter,  during  half-holidays  and  let  the  candidate  give 
them  his  test  lesson  in  the  presence  of  the  principal,  the  professor 
of  pedagogy  and  the  department  specialist,  which  shall  be  dis- 
cussed immediately  afterwards  as  indicated  above.  Since  the 
classes  change,  not  all  of  the  pupils  being  required  to  attend 
—  twenty  is  quite  a  sufficient  number, —  the  pupils  lose  but  very 
little  time.  And  the  increased  burden  on  the  various  depart- 
ment specialists  is  not  great.  There  is  more  demand  on  the 
principal  who  is  expected  to  be  present  every  week.  But  he  will 
gladly  assume  this  additional  task  because  of  his  interest  in 
the  training  of  teachers  and  because  it  furnishes  him  an  oppor- 
tunity to  become  acquainted  with  the  coming  generation  of 
teachers  from  whom  he  can  later  on  select  one  or  another,  of 
those  whose  test  lessons  pleased  him,  for  his  institution. 

The  professor  of  pedagogy'  as  a  matter  of  course  has  by  far  the 
heaviest  task  which  is  actually  not  a  small  one.  If  this  ar- 
rangement, as  I  confidently  hope,  is  once  recognized  as  the  only 
method  for  training  a  full-fledged  teaching  profession  in  its 
problems  and  its  responsibilities,  the  professorships  of  pedagogy 
will  have  to  be  correspondingly  increased,  successful  teachers 
secured  and  appointed  as  assistants  to  the  professors.  In  short, 
the  formal  arrangements,  the  financial  provision,  which  would 
be  comparatively  small,  the  securing  of  suitable  men,  all  of 
this  involves  no  great  difficult^^  The  most  important  thing  of 
all  is  to  convince  the  board  of  education,  the  examining  com- 
mittees, the  philosophical  faculties  and  finally  even  the  parents 
and  the  pupils,  i.e.,  the  educated  general  public  of  the  advantage 


236  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

and  necessity  of  this  measure. 

With  us  here  in  Austria  this  arrangement  should  certainly 
appeal  to  the  board  of  education  even  for  the  reason  that  there 
is  so  frequently  a  dearth  of  teachers.  In  such  periods  of  dearth, 
I  have  experienced  tw^o  since  the  time  of  my  entrance  upon 
my  profession  (1876),  not  only  the  "  additional  "  year  of  pro- 
bation, but  even  the  "  simple  "  year  of  probation  had  to  be  dis- 
pensed with.  The  young  men  came  directly  from  the  university 
to  the  school  vi^ithout  the  slightest  pedagogic  training.  They 
must  at  once  undertake  the  teaching  of  a  number  of  classes 
independently,  have  the  same  duties  and  privileges  as  the  other, 
regularly  appointed  teachers  and  must  adjust  themselves  ac- 
cordingly. They  are  usually  assigned  to  the  supervision  of  a 
more  experienced  teacher,  but  the  assistance  of  this  supervising 
teacher,  who  is  busily  engaged  and  has  but  little  time  to  visit  the 
classes  of  his  younger  colleague,  can  be  of  but  very  little  account. 
He  can  simply  offer  a  few  practical  suggestions,  but  of  peda- 
gogic training  there  can  be  none.  The  board  should  not  allow 
themselves  to  be  deceived  on  this  point  and  still  less  deceive 
themselves  by  official  documents  which  may  be  bureaucratically 
valuable  but  in  point  of  fact  useless.  It  is  not  at  all  amazing  if 
the  young  people  make  great  mistakes  and,  what  is  far  worse, 
if  they  form  distorted  and  ruinous  ideas  of  their  vocation  and 
of  the  relation  of  the  teacher  to  the  pupils,  and  allow  them  to 
become  fixed.  With  how  much  greater  confidence  could  such  a 
young  man  be  given  charge  of  a  class,  if  we  knew  that  he  had 
been  in  practical  contact  with  school  for  a  period  of  two  years, 
that  he  had  given  test  lessons,  prepared  himself  and  even  ex- 
perienced what  it  means  to  be  a  teacher  and  to  impart  instruc- 
tion. The  suggestions  and  advice  of  the  supervising  teacher 
will  likewise  have  an  entirely  diflEerent  effect  with  an  amateur 
who  has  been  trained  in  this  fashion. 

But  the  effect  of  such  exercises  on  the  whole  mind  of  the 
future  teacher  previously  discussed  seems  to  me  vastly  more 
important  than  these  resulting  advantages  for  the  continuation 
of  the  school  system  during  periods  of  a  dearth  of  teachers. 
The  sense  of  personal  responsibility  for  the  pedagogic  results  and 
for  the  entire  conduct  of  the  class,  the  habit  of  thorough  prep- 
aration even  to  details,  the  conviction  that  this  is  the  sole  pos- 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  237 

sible  method  of  attaining  self-assurance,  insight  into  the  rela- 
tion of  the  teacher  to  the  pupils,  the  subjective  impulse  to  be 
continually  striving  at  self-improvement,  all  these  things  can 
only  be  effectively  achieved  for  the  advanced  teacher's  pro- 
fession by  implanting  these  ideas  and  sentiments  in  the  plastic 
minds  of  the  students.  The  teachers  of  the  public  schools 
furnish  clear  proof  of  this  fact.  Every  one  of  them  has  drafted 
hour  schedules  and  given  test  lessons  and  the  majority  of  them 
are  therefore  accustomed  to  methodical,  exact  preparation  and 
are  interested  in  such  problems.  Our  pedagogic  problems  are 
more  difficult  to  solve,  hence  the  need  of  even  more  intensive 
pedagogic  training. 

I  have  already  stated  the  fact  that  even  the  scientific  educa- 
tion of  the  candidates  must  necessarily  gain  something  by  this 
method.  Let  me  add  in  substantiation  the  results  of  my  ex- 
perience. I  have  twice  given  courses  on  methods  of  teaching 
the  ancient  classics  at  the  University  of  Vienna.  During  the 
latter  half  of  the  semester  I  arranged  exercises  in  the  ordinary 
method  of  interpreting  the  ancient  authors.  The  first  time  I 
took  the  Iliad,  the  next  time  the  Antigone  of  Sophocles.  I 
urged  the  students  to  voluntary  participation  and  to  prepare 
themselves  according  to  outlines  which  I  furnished  them.  It 
repeatedly  happened  that  it  was  only  through  the  requirement 
of  the  ordinary  interpretation  that  they  clearly  saw"  that  cer- 
tain forms  and  phenomena  of  syntax  which  they  of  course  knew 
in  a  general  way,  were  however  not  as  fully  understood  in  their 
depth  and  breadth  as  was  necessary  for  the  work  of  the  school. 

I  think  therefore,  that  we  must  by  all  means  begin  the  training 
of  teachers  at  the  university.  And  I  am  convinced  that  the 
plans  here  suggested,  which  in  practice  will  certainly  require  a 
number  of  modifications,  are  adapted  to  help  us  forward  towards 
the  desired  goal. 

If  a  candidate  w^ho  has  been  trained  in  this  manner  passes  his 
examination  and  enrolls  for  his  year  of  probation,  this  year  can 
be  employed  in  an  entirely  different  and  far  more  effective  way. 
We  can  then  introduce  him  to  the  administration  of  discipline 
and  show  him  in  this  connection  how  much  can  be  done  here 
tov/ards  the  formation  of  character.  He  will  then  discern  the 
fact  that  we  must  not  only  be  teachers,  but  likewise  trainers. 
And  he  will  thus  acquire  an  appreciation  for  the  ethical  and 


238  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

social  problems  of  our  vocation.  And  this  will  again  furnish 
him  opportunity  to  extend  and  deepen  his  scientific  education, 
which  was  thus  far  as  a  matter  of  course  confined  to  his  own  de- 
partment, by  means  of  psychological,  sociological  and  ethical 
studies. 

After  the  young  man  has  as  a  student  thus  achieved  the  veer- 
ing about  from  the  pupil's  desk  to  the  teacher's  chair  referred  to 
above ;  after  his  pedagogic  conscience  is  quickened  and  sharpened, 
after  he  has  overcome  his  natural  timidity  in  the  presence  of 
the  class  and  has  had  a  little  exercise  in  practical  teaching,  after 
he  has  then  acquired  the  requisite  appreciation  of  the  peda- 
gogic problems  as  a  probationer,  then,  but  not  until  then,  the 
state  may  entrust  him  with  the  independent  guidance  of  the 
pupils.  We  must  make  sure  of  one  thing,  namely,  that  not 
only  the  germs,  but  even  the  impulse  to  constant  further  develop- 
ment have  been  deeply  implanted  in  his  mind. 

If  the  board  of  education  and  the  educated  classes  of  society 
clearly  appreciate  the  wonderfully  significant  and  important 
social  function  of  the  secondary  school,  if  ail  the  governing  fac- 
tors clearly  see  that  the  culture  and  morality  of  the  next 
generation  is  essentially  molded  by  the  pedagogic  results  of  the 
advanced  teaching  profession,  then  will  the  conviction,  that 
we  must  concentrate  all  our  energy  on  training  up  a  teaching 
profession  which  is  conscious  of  and  permeated  with  its  sublime 
task,  begin  to  make  some  headway.  Society  will  then  naturally 
accord  to  such  a  teaching  profession  the  economic  and  social  po- 
sition which  its  high  significance  and  service  deserves. 

Conclusion 

The  problems  of  the  secondary  teacher  which  have  here  been 
set  forth  in  broad  detail,  despite  their  great  variety,  bear  cer- 
tain characteristics  and  peculiarities  which  give  them  a  com- 
mon brand. 

Thus  we  observe  everywhere  that  the  positive,  the  concrete 
and  real,  which  fills  our  consciousness  with  real  content  is  far 
more  important  than  the  negative-critical,  which  rejects  and 
restrains.  This  manifests  itself  very  clearly  in  our  scientific 
training.  We  find  it  of  far  greater  importance  to  know  per- 
fectly and  exactly  the  positive  results  of  investigation,  to  have  at 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  239 

our  disposal  a  wealth  of  fact-data  and  constantly  have  it  at 
our  command,  than  to  possess  the  ability  to  refute  false  views 
with  critical  acumen.  My  university  studies  came  at  a  time 
when  the  critical  spirit  prevailed,  especially  in  philology  and 
history.  This  criticism  was  not  only  directed  against  the  au- 
thority of  the  manuscripts  and  against  the  convenient  legend. 
People  looked  at  a  scientific  work,  a  dissertation  first  of  all  to 
see  whether  the  author  had  not  made  a  mistake  somewhere, 
which  they  tried,  with  much  energy  and  even  more  pleasure,  to 
prove. 

The  after  effects  of  this  hypercritical  period,  which,  thank 
God,  is  past,  are  still  noticeable  among  many  of  us,  especially 
among  classical  philologists.  There  are  at  the  present  time 
still  many  who  ask  first  of  all  concerning  another  man's  work, 
what  is  to  be  rejected  and  where  are  its  vulnerable  points. 
Such  natures  are  easily  inclined  to  apply  their  critical  methods 
in  the  estimation  of  the  work  of  the  pupils.  But  here  this 
mode  of  procedure  is  entirely  out  of  place.  Here  one  must 
rather  discover,  both  in  the  answers  as  well  as  in  the  written 
exercises  of  the  pupils,  the  things  that  are  positively  present, 
the  things  that  have  actually  been  learned,  because  it  is  only 
on  this  that  we  can  build  further.  We  must  not  ascertain  our 
pupil's  errors  with  a  sense  of  superiority  or  with  subjective  re- 
sentment. We  must  rather  be  concerned  to  understand  them, 
to  search  out  their  psychological  antecedents,  if  we  would  suc- 
cessfully attack  them. 

Every  one  of  us  has  discovered  this  advantage  of  the  positive 
method  over  the  critical,  even  if  not  clearly  conscious  of  the  fact. 
In  the  preparation  for  teaching,  let  us  say,  the  interpretation 
of  an  ancient  or  a  modern  author,  a  section  of  geography  or  of 
history,  in  short  in  every  preparation  we  get  the  best  results 
from  the  handbooks  and  commentaries  that  contain  the  most 
positive  information.  Critical  editions  which  merely  contain 
various  readings  and  explanations  concerning  the  probability 
of  the  one  or  the  other,  do  not  possess  by  far  the  same  value  as 
the  detailed  commentary'  of  fact  and  linguistic  structure.  So 
the  historian  is  likewise  surest  to  find  in  the  rich  collections  of 
source  documents  the  things  which  he  needs  for  teaching. 

But  the  tendency  towards  the  positive  likewise  affects  our 
didactic  problems.     We  gain   the  attention  of  the  pupils  far 


240  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

more  easily  and  certainly  if  we  arouse  their  interest  by  means 
of  positive,  concrete  occupation  than  by  loud  and  frequent  ad- 
monitions to  attention  and  by  reproving  and  punishing  inatten- 
tion. And  the  habit  of  industry  is  not  achieved  by  scolding  and 
punishing  indolence,  but  by  daily  furnishing  the  pupils  positive, 
concrete  material  on  which  they  can  satisfy  their  intellectual 
functional  impulse  in  a  pleasing  manner.  The  principle  which 
we  have  proposed  for  external  discipline,  that  prevention  is 
better  than  punishment,  likewise  applies  here. 

And  we  note  the  same  characteristic  in  our  ethical  and  social 
problems.  We  can  develop  characters  and  inspire  them  with 
the  social  spirit,  not  by  means  of  instituting  a  powerful  system 
of  restraint,  but  by  arousing  the  dormant  vital  energies  of  the 
pupils.  No  phillippic  against  egoism  will  even  begin  to  make 
the  impression,  which  the  reference  to  the  contrivances  em- 
ployed daily,  which  can  only  come  into  being  and  discharge  their 
function  by  continuous  and  by  organized  cooperation,  arouses. 

Hence  just  as  it  is  far  more  important  in  language  teaching 
that  the  correct  expression  be  heard  frequently,  than  that  the 
false  expression  be  warned  against,  so  our  whole  energy  must 
be  characterized  far  more  by  the  positive  than  by  the  critical 
spirit.  This,  as  a  matter  of  course,  requires  a  certain  amount 
of  healthy  optimism,  which  to  say  the  least  is  rather  rare  these 
da3's.  The  acquisition  of  vast  stores  of  knowledge  and  the 
constant  contact  with  the  rising  generation  is  well  adapted  how- 
ever to  safeguard  a  man  against  the  cold  and  listless  pessimism 
so  prevalent  at  present,  which  accredits  nothing.  Whilst  we 
transmit  the  achievements  of  the  human  mind  to  youth  we  have 
constant  occasion  to  rejoice  at  what  has  been  accomplished,  and 
the  vast  problems  which  still  await  scientific  investigation,  fur- 
nish youth  the  assurance  that  the  past  has  still  left  it  enough 
to  conquer. 

This  optimism  which  so  readily  combines  with  the  tendency 
towards  the  positive  will  likewise  furnish  us  power  to  realize 
the  second  requirement  which  is  so  characteristic  of  our  vocation. 
I  refer  to  the  consummation  of  difficult  syntheses.  Through- 
out the  foregoing  discussions  I  have  frequently  referred  to  the 
necessity  of  such  syntheses  and  I  should  here  like  to  show  that 
the  tendencies  which  thus  require  reconciliation  not  only  do 
not  restrain,  but  must  rather  even  mutually  advance  each  other, 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  241 

if  we  stick  to  the  positive  and  concrete  method. 

Right  at  the  beginning  we  insisted  on  the  synthesis  of  science 
and  pedagogy.  If  the  new  teacher  has  really  acquired  an 
abundance  of  positive  knowledge  at  the  university,  he  con- 
sequently feels  the  need  of  putting  it  to  use.  He  finds  appre- 
ciative auditors  in  the  pupils,  who  eagerly  appropriate  what  is 
offered  them.  On  the  other  hand  the  preparation  for  his  lessons 
require  him  to  fill  out  all  manner  of  gaps,  and  the  more  thor- 
oughly he  does  this  so  much  the  more  rapidly  will  he  increase 
in  knowledge  and  his  teaching  be  correspondingly  more  effec- 
tive. The  synthesis  constantly  grows  easier  and  more  complete, 
since  the  increased  knowledge  improves  the  teaching  and  the 
thorough  teaching  enriches  knowledge. 

I  have  clearly  shown  that  the  official  character  of  the  teach- 
er's activity  is  calculated  not  only  to  restrain,  but  likewise  to 
enrich  him  subjectively.  And  I  at  the  same  time  proved,  that 
even  the  most  difficult  of  all  syntheses,  that  of  the  public  official 
and  of  the  teacher  is  facilitated  by  the  tendency  towards  the 
positive  and  that  here  likewise  both  functions  are  calculated  to 
foster  each  other. 

We  have  insisted  on  the  many-sidedness  and  thoroughness  of 
the  teacher's  scientific  training.  And  this  combination  comes  to 
pass  well  nigh  automatically  by  adhering  to  the  positive  tend- 
ency. If  we  practice  thorough  preparation  from  the  start,  if  we 
have  made  it  a  matter  of  course  that  not  even  the  slightest  detail 
of  the  subject-matter  of  the  lesson  we  are  preparing  dare 
remain  obscure,  that  we  refuse  absolutely  to  allow  any  uncer- 
tainty, this  thoroughness  will  then  necessarily  fuse  with  no  small 
degree  of  many-sidedness.  And  we  have  to  cover  the  most 
varied  phases  of  our  department  in  succession  and  frequently 
even  contemporaneously  in  school,  which  requires  us  in  fact  to 
be  at  home  in  many  fields.  And  in  addition  to  this  it  quite 
frequently  happens  that  we  must  likewise  reach  out  into  neigh- 
boring departments  in  the  course  of  our  instruction  which  impels 
us  to  master  the  fundamentals  even  in  these  fields.  In  this  way 
therefore  the  conscientious  effort  for  thoroughness  has  naturally 
protected  us  against  a  narrow  confinement  to  a  small  depart- 
ment of  knowledge,  enriched  our  knowledge,  enlarged  our 
horizon  and  advanced  our  many-sidedness.  That  is  to  say  that 
here  also  there  is  no  restraint,  but  a  reciprocal  fostering  of  ap- 


242  Problems  of  the  Secondary   Teacher 

parent  antitheses. 

In  connection  with  our  ethical  and  social  problems  we  have 
taken  special  care  to  show  that  personal  duty  and  personal  dig- 
nity, that  the  social  spirit  and  the  development  of  personality 
mutually  foster  one  another  and  that  each  of  them  produces  its 
proper  effect  only  through  the  synthesis  of  both  these  principles. 

Our  exposition  should  reveal  the  fact  that  the  problems  of 
the  secondary  teacher  are  vast  and  difficult,  but  not  therefore 
unsolvable.  It  should  likewise  become  clear  that  our  pedagogic 
task  is  entirely  unique,  differing  essentially  from  that  of  the 
public  school  teacher  on  the  one  hand  and  the  university  pro- 
fessor on  the  other.  I  have  also  tried  to  prove  that  the  dis- 
charge of  our  duties  must  not  be  a  matter  of  blind  subservience, 
but  our  own  spontaneous,  deliberate  act.  Only  as  we  grasp 
our  problems  in  all  their  breadth  and  depth,  only  as  we  devote 
our  whole  ability  to  our  work,  will  we  be  in  position  to  at 
least  approach  this  high  ideal.  And  the  reward  for  all  this 
labor  and  care  is  nothing  less  than  the  personal  sense  of  satisfac- 
tion together  with,  as  we  grow  older,  perhaps  the  appreciative 
attachment  of  former  pupils. 

I  know  that  my  conception  of  our  vocation  will  receive  a 
criticism  with  which  there  is  generally  combined  a  dose  of 
depreciation.  I  will  be  disparagingly  pronounced  an  idealist. 
And  I  reply:  accipio  omen,  I  am  proud  of  it,  if  I  deserve  this 
title.  Only  I  conceive  idealism  and  ideals  in  a  slightly  different 
way  from  what  is  customary  at  present.  The  essential  nature 
of  an  ideal  does  not  consist,  as  a  former  Austrian  statesman  has 
said,  in  the  fact  that  it  is  never  attained.  The  characteristic 
and  effective  feature  of  an  ideal  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  inspires 
the  desire  to  approach  it,  that  it  excites  the  imagination  and 
spurs  the  will.  "  A  noble  example  inspires  emulation  and  fur- 
nishes judgment  with  higher  principles."  This  is  not  an  empty 
phrase,  but  a  truth  surcharged  with  seriousness  and  profound 
meaning. 

Kein  Augustisch  Alter  blühte, 

Keines  Medicäers  Güte 

Lächelte  des  Lehrers  Kunst; 

Sie  wird  nicht  gepflegt  von  Ruhme, 

Sie  entfalted  ihre  Blume 

Nicht  im  Strahl  der  Fürstengunst, 

Rühmend  darfs  der  Lehrer  sagen, 


Ethical  and  Social  Problems  243 

Höher  darf  das  Herz  ihm  schlagen, 
Selbst  erschafft  er  sich  den  Wert. 

Only  as  we  ourselves  create  our  value  subjectively  shall  we 
likewise  attain  the  objective  appreciation  which  our  profession 
deserves.  And  with  this  appreciation  moreover  our  social  po- 
sition must  inevitably  rise  and  our  economic  condition  improve. 
Hence  idealism  is  still  not  such  an  impractical  thing  as  people 
generally  think. 

The  practical  Englishman  says:  "  Time  is  money."  We  im- 
practical idealists  must  invert  this  adage.  For  us,  money  would 
be  time.  An  adequate  subsistence  would  relieve  many  of  us 
of  the  pitiable  necessity  of  seeking  outside  employment  which 
not  only  robs  us  of  time  that  might  well  be  utilized  in  self- 
improvement  and  independent  scientific  investigation,  but  un- 
fortunately likewise  frequently  diminishes  our  respect  and  dig- 
nity. Oscar  Jaeger  accordingly  offers  the  new  teacher  the  fol- 
lowing advice  which  is  at  once  as  charming  as  it  is  wise  and 
penetrating:  "  First  of  all  have  ten  thousand  dollars."  The 
man  of  experience  and  character  knows  only  too  well  that 
economic  independence  constitutes  a  wonderfully  important  con- 
dition for  the  respect  of  our  profession. 

We  see  therefore  that  the  idealistic  conception  of  our  vo- 
cation is  consistent  with  the  tendency  towards  the  positive,  the 
concrete  and  leads  to  very  real,  tangible  results.  Let  us  take 
fresh  courage  and  bright  hope  from  this  fact.  Let  us  con- 
stantly be  more  thoroughly  convinced  of  the  fact,  that  insight 
into  the  wonderfully  important  social  function  of  the  second- 
ary school  and  in  the  resulting  real  and  concrete  problems  of 
the  secondary  school,  will  likewise  furnish  us  the  energy  to  ful- 
fill the  exalted  requirements  which  we  must  impose  upon  our- 
selves. Complete  devotion  to  the  vast  social  problem  will  auto- 
matically furnish  us  opportunity  for  personal  invigoration,  to 
develop  self-sufficient  personalities,  which  then  likewise  possess 
the  capacity  of  influencing  youth.  And  in  this  way  moreover 
we  effect  in  ourselves  the  exceedingly  difficult  synthesis  of  in- 
dividualism and  socialism.  While  working  on  ourselves  and 
for  ourselves  we  are  likewise  doing  splendid  service  for  the 
social  body  of  which  we  are  members.  We  may  then  perhaps 
succeed  in  quickening  in  our  pupils,  whom  we  are  anxious  to 
develop  to  personal  duty  and  personal  dignity,  the  germs  which 


244'  Problems  of  the  Secondary  Teacher 

will  eventually  enable  them  likewise  to  work  at  this  great 
synthesis  on  their  own  part.  In  this  way  moreover  we  con- 
tribute in  a  twofold  sense  to  the  solution  of  the  most  important 
problem  of  the  civilization  of  the  twentieth  century. 


INDEX  — TOPICS 


Achilles,  as  scorning  lying,  198 
Aestheticism,   modern,    194,   209 
Aesthetic  training,  the  oldest  and 
most  constant  element  in  gen- 
eral  education,   32,   34,   68 
as  the  unfolding  of  the  funda- 
mental   function    of    feeling, 
69 
by  means  of  philology,  69,   83, 

90,    208 
and  inner  freedom,  208  f. 
according  to  Schiller,  49,  208 
Alcohol,  total  abstinence,  225 
Ancient   languages,   as   means   of 
discipline   (Wolf),  56,  83 
Scientific  problem  of  the  teach- 
ers of,  102 
Antiquities,   55 
Antiquity,  classical,   as  ideal   and 

unity,   104 
Anthropology,    87 
Antigone  of  Sophocles,  216,  237 
Apology  of  Plato,  97,   177,  217 
Art,  68,  208 

Austrian  secondary  school,  34 
Attention,   137,  240 
Attitude  towards  pupils,   195  ff. 
Authority  of  the  teacher,   144 
intellectual,     148  ff. 
moral,  150,  156 

transferred  from  the  teacher  to 
impersonal    science,    153,    182 

Backbone,  spiritual,  9,  15  f. 
Believer,  the,  and  authority,  144, 

148 
Bible,   knowledge   of,   99 
Biology,  87 
Biological   conception   of   general 

education,  41 
Botany,  87 
Brain,  psychology  of,  81 


Branches,    inspirational    and    dis- 
ciplinary,   8s  f. 

Callicles,  97,   168  f. 

Categorical  imperative,  92,  170 

Century,  the,  of  the  child,  174  f. 

Character,    training   in,    162,    163, 
200,   212 

Chemistry   as   subject   of   instruc- 
tion, 80,  85 

Children    and   parents   of   to-day, 
194 

Child,  the,  and  the  primary  ego, 
205 

Christianity,   169,  172 

Church,  the,  169 

Class,    public    sentiment    of    the, 
i8of,    185,    213 

Coercion  in  teaching,  127,  139,  143 

Concentration   on   anticipated   im- 
pression,   137 
training  to  prolonged,  138  f. 

Conscience,  social,  165 
personal,  170,  210  f. 

Conservation  of  total-will,    i66 

Constant  element  in  general  edu- 
cation, 31,  34 

Constitutional    history    in    lower 
classes,  135  f 

Conundrums,  132 

Commands,   159,   182 

Comradeship    and    character,   213 

Development        of        intellectual 

functions,   85 
Dialectic,   as   element  of  trivium, 

37 
Didactics  and  method,  highly  es- 
teemed  by  elementary  teach- 
ers,    spurned    by     gymnasial 
teachers,    8 
experimental,   42 


24s 


246 


Index — Topics 


Difficult  and  impossible,  diflfer- 
ent  things,  20  f,   123 

Dispositions,  psychical,  61 

Discipline,  cases  of,  and  their 
discussion,   213 

Division  of  labor,  its  cultural 
significance,   167 

Double  aspect  of  social  pheno- 
mena,   22,    166 

Duty,    166 

Education,  more  than  knowledge, 
28  f. 
as  organic  development,  41 
to  humanity   (Herder),  45  f. 
formal,  53,  57 
from  within,  41  f,  53,  67 
scientific,  66,  72  f,  80  ff. 
aesthetic,   32,   34,   68,  72  f. 
social-ethical,   70 
religious,   73 
philosophical,  75 
Educational    ideal    of   neohuman- 

ism,  41  flF,  92  f. 
Educational      value     of      ancient 

languages,  101  f,   106  f. 
Ego,  the,  as  unity,  39  f. 

the     primary     and     secondary, 
204  ff. 
Egoism,  antisocial,   194  f. 
natural,  of  child,  205  f. 
Elective  courses,  86 
Elementary    mathematics    in    the 

university,  118  f. 
Encyclopedia      as      summary     of 

valuable  knowledge,  36,  39 
Encyclopedic    conception    of    gen- 
eral education,  29,  35-41,  58, 
80 
Enmity,  on  part  of  teacher,  221 
Enthusiasm,     pedagogic,     in     the 
1 8th  century,  8 
as  aim  in  history  teaching,  89 
Eros,  the  philosophical,  76,  95  f. 
Ethics,  authority  in,  144 
the  study  of,   164 
as    separate    branch    of    study, 

214  f. 
social  nature  of,  165 


Evolution,  aids  to,  59 
training  as,  92 

doctrine  of  as  basis  of  psychol- 
ogy, 117  f. 
and  training,   174  f. 
Evolution     stages     of     conscious- 
ness,  62  f. 
Examinations,  97  f,  227  f. 
Experience    analysed    by    science, 

64,  66 
Experimenting,     didactics     of     in 

physics,   119 
Expansion  of  desire,  69  f,  161,  204 

Faust,  Goethe's,   39 

Failures  of   pupils,   must  be   psy- 
chologically   understood,    239 

Fear   and   authority,   144 

Feeling   as   fundamental   function 
of  consciousness,   62,   66 
and  desire  as  substructure,  71  f, 

157 

and  self-preservation,  67 

Functions,    bodily,    59  ff. 

mental,  59,  61 
Functional  demands,   67 

of  intellect,  128  f. 

for  exercise,  167  f 

General    education,    various    in- 
terpretations of,  41,  81  f. 
as  aim  of  secondary  school,  27, 

.77  . 
historico-critical  analysis,  28-59 
constructive   synthesis,    59-78 
as  social  obligation,   33 
in  the  Protagoras,  32 
its   constant    elements,    30  f,    34 
Geography,  88,  121 
Geology,  88,   179 
Geometry,   36  f. 

German,    inner    relation    to    the 
Greek  spirit,   55 
language  as  subject  of  instruc- 
tion, 107  f. 
Germanist,  the,  and  instruction  in 
style,    109  f. 
should    know    the    ancient    lan- 
guages, 108  f. 


Index — Topics 


247 


Gorgias    (Plato's),  96  f. 
Grammar,    as    part    of    trivium, 
36  f. 
and  meter  in  advanced  classes, 

:       Greek,   32-36 

according  to  Herder,  46 
according  to  W.  v.   Humboldt, 

.    53f. 

influence  of  in  the  Renais- 
sance,   169  f. 

their  ethical  requirements,  176  f. 
1  Gymnasium,  Neohumanistic,  10, 
52,   55  f- 

Habituation   to  work   as   regulat- 
ing desire,   77 
as  principle  of  instruction,  140- 

144  _ 
as   ethical    problem,    161,    178 
Harmony,    preestablished,    42  f. 
Heroic,     the,     in     children,     197, 

203 
Historj',    economic    conception    of, 

."4 
with  philology,  88  f,  109  f. 
ancient,  89 

as  subject  of  instruction,   no 
meaning  of,  in 

as  fact  and  science  of  civiliza- 
tion,  12 
significance    of   psychology   for, 
112  ff. 
Historian,    the,    and    the    present, 

112  f. 
Historic  sense,   no 
Home  study,   142 
Honor,  sense  of,   197,  209  f. 
Humanism,   30  f,   37,   170 
Humanity,    according   to   Herder, 

45  ^   , 

according   to    W.    v.    Humbolt, 
50  f. 
Hypnotism,  145 


Ideal,  a  new  moral,  170 
the  nature  of  the,  243 
"Ideal  and  life"   (Schiller),  109, 


207  f . 
Idealized    antiquity    as    source   of 

power,  55  f. 
Illumination,  the,  170 
Imperative   character    of    the    so- 
cial, 33,  35 
Inattentiveness   of   pupils,   138  f. 
Independence,      intellectual,      79, 
122  f,  151,   152  f. 
of  teacher,   222 
Indifference  of  pupils,  152 
Individual,        the        independent, 
166  f. 
origin   of  the,    167  f. 
the,     in     conflict    with    society, 

168  f,   198  f. 
subjection  of,  to  the  social  will, 
166 
Individualism,    92  f. 
excess  of,  171,  197 
and  socialism,  175 
Industry  of  the  pupils  as  socially 

valuable,  220 
Inner  freedom,   68,   192,  206 
Inspirational    branches,    85  f,    87, 
143 
the  teachers  of,  89 
Instruments  of  thought,  scientific, 
64,  79 
mathematical,  65,  86 
physical,  65,  86 
philosophical,  76 
Intellect,  the,  as  tertiary  level   in 
the    evolution    of    knowledge, 
62 
development  of,  63 
as  superstructure,  70 
as  instrument,   70,    137 
Intellectual      functions,      develop- 
ment of,   85 
Intellectualistic  psychology,  71 
Interest,    as    feeling   of    pleasure, 
128 
as  functional  pleasure  of  the  in- 
tellect, 67,  128 
as  pedagogic  principle,  87,  126- 

140 
not    sufficienth'^    appreciated    in 
secondary   school,    126 


248 


Index — Topics 


two  meanings  of  the  word,  131 
and   attention,   137 
Interesting  teacher,  129,  139 
Interpretation  of   sensory  impres- 
sions,   aim    of    instruction    in 
sense  perception,  62  f. 
Iphigenia      (Goethe),     181,     199, 

216,    222 
Island,  the  wakeful,  146,   147  f. 

Joy,  in   achievement,  67  f,  128 
moral  value  of,  128,  209 
in  the  beautiful  and  inner  free- 
dom, 68,  207  f. 
its    creative    power    illustrated, 
.134  f- 
Justice  of  the  teacher,  159 

Knowledge  function,  its  develop- 
ment,   64  f. 

Laokoon  (Lessing),  109 
Latin  and  the  neohumanistic  gym- 
nasium, 57 
not  too  difficult  for  children  of 

.  ^^"'  ^33  . 
"  Liberalis,"  in  the  Middle  Ages, 

37 
Lies,  according  to  Kant,  171,  199 
temptations    in    public    school, 

195  f,  201 
as  sacrifice,  197 

as  degrading  to  personality,  198 
as  weapon  of  defense,  197 
Literature,  modern,  more  import- 
ant than  ancient,  108 
in    psychology,    117 
Logic,    as    subject   of    instruction, 

75,  "6 
examples    from    legal    proceed- 
ings, 116 


required  to  preserve  the  worth 
of  humanity,   193 
Man's  duty,  165  f,  176 
rights,  170 

dignity,   165,   170,   176,   192 
Mathematics,  thought  instruments 
of,   6s 
and   physics   as   introduction  to 

nature,  80 
its  disciplinary  value,  80 
as  subject  of  instruction,  118 
psychology  of,  118  f. 
Memory  material  in  inspirational 

branches,   87 
Method,    difference    of    in    public 
and  secondary  school,  124  f. 


"Nathan"    (Lessing),  216  f. 
Nature   as   sphere   of   instruction, 

80 
and  spirit,  80,  85 
Neohumanisra,    29,    32,    42  f,    63, 

170 
"  Not  norm  but  seed,"  49 
Notes,  318 

Obedience  and   authority,   149 
passive  and  active,  of  pupil, 
181  f. 

"  Obstacles  can  be  overcome  "  as 
maxim,  21,  123 

Official   character   of   the  teacher, 
17  f. 

Onesided  talent,  86  f,  130 

Onesidedness      of      the      younger 
philologists,   103 

Order,  as  problem  in  moral  train- 
ing, 179 

Organization  of  course  of  study, 
86  f. 


Man,    as    mankind    in    miniature, 

39 
the  nature  of    (Herder),  43 
the   nature   of    (Humboldt),   51 
the  most  valuable   asset  of  the 

state,  17s 


Parents  as  critics,  7 

and  present  day  children,  194 
the    teacher's    association    with 
the,  221 
Peculiarity  of  the  pupils,  130 
Pedagogy  and   science,   10  f. 


Index — Topics 


249 


necessary  for  all  teachers,  91 
training    of    prospective    teach- 
ers in,  233 
Pedantry,  10,  179 
Personality,  nature  and  value  of, 
9,   16  f,   70,   73,   92,    163,    165, 
167  f,  173  f,   176,  192 
of  the  teacher,  157  f,  243 
the  freedom  of  the  strong,  168 
Philoctetus    (Sophocles),   198,   216 
Philologists,     the     classical,     and 
pedagogy,  10 
fundamental  problem  of,   103 
interpretation  of  authors,  155  f, 
.  239       _ 
Philology,  its  historical  character, 
82,  88 
classical,  57 

scientific  achievements,   102 
and  natural  science  as  founda- 
tion of  education,  83 
Philological    seminars,    10 

instruction   and   aesthetic  train- 
ing, 68,  83,  86,  90 
Philosoph}',    a    personal    matter, 

history  of,  in  its  significance  to 

various    branches,    96  f. 
and  inner  freedom,  206 
Philosophical  training,  75,  95 
propaedeutic,  75,  116,   154,  217 
Eros,  76,  96 
Physics  and  mathematics,  80 

as  subject  of  study,  119 
Physical  concepts  and  their  false 
application  to  psychical  prob- 
lems, 81 
Phvsical   development,    33,   60,   90 
Physiology    and    psychology,    81, 

117 
Poljinathy,  37,  39,  58 
Positive  knowledge,  121,  123,  225, 

238 
Practical   education,   63 
Praise  and  blame,  158 
Prescientific     stage     of     thought, 

64  f. 
Probation  year,   13,   14,   229,   231, 
236  f. 


Propaedeutic,     philosophical,     75, 
115,  is4f. 
and  teaching  ethics,  217 
Protestantism,   169 
Psychical   dispositions,  61,   94 
Psychology,    Herder's    conception 
of,  43 
intellectualistic,    71 
as  subject  of  study,  75,  117 
common  problem  for  all  teach- 
ers, 93 
importance  for  history,  iii 
importance     for      mathematics, 

119 
importance  for  physics,  119 
importance   for    philology,    105 
Public   sentiment   and   the   course 
of  stud}',  84 
in  moralit}-,  163 
of  the  class,  180,  183,  185,  213 
Pupils,  as  end,  55,  94 

free     expression     of    sentiment, 

15  s.   195 
sense  of  justice  of,  159 
interest  in   discussion   of   moral 

problems,   177 
and  authority,   150 
treated  as  gentlemen,  195,  210 
Punctuality,  179 

Quadrivium,   36 

Reason,  human,  a  sophist,  222 
Religion,   as  elementary  idea,  74, 

99 
social  nature  of,  74 
requirement  of  teachers,  98 
and   moral   instruction,  215 
and  authority,  144 

Renaissance,  30,  37,  170 

Repetition,   78 

Rhetoric  in  trivium,  37 

Responsibilit}',    sense   of,   79,    122, 
161,  182 

School,  must  be  difficult,  218 
School  discipline,  211 

on   authorit}'   inadequate,   182  f, 
189 


250 


Index — Topics 


"School   Community,"   183,   189 
Science    and    pedagogy,    synthesis 

of,  10,  71,  240  f. 
Secondary  school   defined,   28 
social    function    of,    6,    28,    34, 

218 
general   character  of,  27 
aim  of,  77  f. 
course  of  study,  83  f. 
Secondary  teacher,  peculiar  prob- 
lems, 9 
as  investigator,   15 
as  public  official,  17  f. 
Selection,    social    problem    of   the 

secondary  school,   218 
Self-government,  student,   183 
and   truthfulness,   202 
and  sense  of  honor,  211 
Self-mastery,  203 
Sense-perception,     instruction     in, 

62 
Social  democracy,  172 
Social      function      of      secondary 
school,  6,  22,  150 
twofold   effect  of   s-phenomena, 

22,  166 
personality,  16,  92,  192 
differentiation,  93,   168 
nature  of  morality,  165 
spirit  in  school,   177 
problems    and    inner    freedom, 

206 
selection    in    secondary    school, 
218 
Society,   its  demands  on  the  edu- 
cated classes,   31,   33  f 
the  state  as  spokesman  for,   33, 

17s,  218 
as    factor    of    moral    evolution, 

164 
and    the    individual    in    social- 
ism,  173 
and  the  teacher,  2x7 
Sociology,  30,  96,  178 
Solidarity,  sense  of,   182,  201 
Specialty  of  teacher,  path  to  phi- 
losophy,  96 
Spirit,  the  realm  of,  and  natural 
science,  8i 


the  social,  177 

relation   of,   to   development  of 

body,   206 
the  critical,  239 
Spiritual   functions  and  their  de- 
velopment, 59,  78 
energies    as    regulative    of    the 

fate  of  men  and  nations,  81 
independence,  79,   122 
activity  as  duty,   140 
power  of  authority,  144 
State     as     author     of     secondary 
school,  96 
as    director   of    society,    33,    75, 

218 
importance      of      in      historical 

evolution,   113 
and  the  individual,   175 
Strengthening    the    will,     60,     69, 

77,   90,    161,  204 
Storm   and   stress,    170,   199 
Students  and  the  teaching  profes- 
sion,  232 
Suggestion,    145 
Superficiality,   39,  86 
Sympathies    and     antipathies    of 

teacher,   159 
Syntax  on  psychological  basis,  105 
Synthesis    of    science    and    peda- 
gogy, 10  f,  126,  240 
of  versatility      and      thorough- 
ness, 16,  240 
of  official   and  teacher,  17,  240 
of   authority  and  love,   158 
of  individualism  and  socialism, 

175 
of  human  duty  and  human  dig- 
nity, 175,  242 
Systematic   mode  of  thought,    125 

Tactfulness,   182 

Talent,  onesided,  86  f,   130 

and  industry,  220 
Teacher,  the  will  to  be,  16 

and  the  scholar,  10 

as  official,    17  f. 

"interesting,"   130  f. 

personal  sympathies  and  antip- 
athies of,  159 


Index — Topics 


251 


the  young,   and   authority,   158 

and    ethics,    164 

as  accepted  guide,  181 

as     example     of     truthfulness, 

201  f. 
outside  the  school,  224 
and  alcohol,  225 
and  the  parents,  221 
and  the  course  of  study,  219 
as  the  organ  of  social  selection, 

219  f. 
dearth  of,  236 
Technique   of   instruction,   229 
Teleology  of  the  psychical,  61 
Test  lessons,  228,  232 
Theory  indispensable  to  practice, 

28 
Thoroughness  and  versatility,  16, 

118,  121,  241 
Training     builds     the     secondary 

ego,  205 
Transition  from  pupil  to  teacher, 

234,  238 
Translation,  104 
Truthfulness,   195,  200 
Total  will,  i66 

Unity   in   variety,   40 
Utraquism,  85,  87 

Versatility      and      thoroughness, 
16,   118,   121,  241 


Will,  to  be  a  teacher,  the,  16  f. 
disciplining    the,    through    ath- 
letics, 60,  68  f. 
governing,  by  training  to  work, 

69 
expansion  of,  69 
and   attention,   137 
total,    166 
Work,  training  to,  69,  126,  140  ff, 
161,   178 
overemphasized,   143 
evaluation  of,   163,    172,   177 
reward  of,   172 

universal   obligation   to,    172  f. 
"  Woe    to    him   who    lies,"    Grill- 

parzer,  216 
World  view  given  by  religion, 

74 
philosophy,  96 

Youth,    modern,    and    the    classi- 
cists,  136 
Restlessness     and     nervousness 

of  modern,  162 
lacks   subjective  stability,   174 
and  subjective  freedom,  207 
Youthful    sport,   60 

Zeus,    as   guardian   of   the   moral 

law,  166 
Zoology,  87 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS 


Adler,   Felix,   214 

Aeschylus,  26,  47,  104 

Aristotle,    35,    76,    104,    157,    165, 

217 
Augustine,   36,   127  f,   143 

Baumeister,  9,   13,  28 
Baumgarten,   97,    109 
Bernheim,  145 
Brentano,   132 
Bridgman,    Laura,    21 

Cassiodorus,   37 

Cicero,   15,  36,  37,  96 

Comenius,  37 

Cornelius   Nepos,    134,    159 

Democritus,  217 
Demosthenes,  13,  15,  155,  224 
Descartes,  76 

Eleatics,  76 
Ellinger,   198 
Engels,   114 
Epicurus,  206  f. 
Euripides,  54,   104 
Exner,  28 

I 
Fichte,  40,  51,  55,  57,  97,  »99 
Foerster,   162,   163,   177,   180,   182, 

183  f,    188,    195  f,    202  f,    207, 

210,  212,  216 
Fries,  13 

Galileo,  97 

Garve,  128 

Goethe,  10,  17,  39,  49  f.  SS.  82, 
88  f,  92,  97,  99  f,  107,  109, 
171,  178,  181  f,  216,  224 

Grillparzer,  107,  109,  216,  220 


Hall,   Stanley,  95 
Hartenstein,  126 


252 


Hegel,  40,  55,  57,  99 
Hcraclitus,  39,  76,  117 
Herbart,  42,  60,  67  f,  71,  126 
Herder,  10,  29,  38,  41,  43,  51.  57, 

58  f,  59 
Homer,    15,    32,    100,    104  f,    166, 

208 
Horace,  15,  96,   109,  162,  176 
Howe,  20  f. 
Humboldt,    29,    38,    41,    49  f,    92, 

171 

James,  William,  95,  145 
Jodl,  62,  75,  147,  217 

Kant,    51,    76,    92,    97,    109,    x6s, 

170,  196,  199,  206 
Kepler,  97 
Key,  Ellen,  174 

Laas,  109 

Lamprecht,   iio,   112 

Lehmann,  50,  109 

Lehrs,  11,  154 

Leibnitz,  43 

Lessing,  42,  97,  99,  107,  109,  3x6  f. 

Lipps,   145 

Luther,  107,  199 

Mach,  71,  119,  141 
Marx,    114 
Meumann,  42 
Meyer,  113 
Moll,  145 
Morhof,  37,  40 

Nagelsbach,  100 
Newton,  97 
Nietzsche,  97,  112,  173 

Offner,  95 

Ostermann,  126,   131 
Ovid,  109 


Index  of  Authors 


253 


Paulsen,    lo,    38,    41,   42,    56,    57, 

64,  86,  93,  179 
Pestalozzi,  42,  163 
Plato,  15,  31,  47,  67,  76,  80,  96  f, 

103,   168  f,   176,   178,  198,  217 
Plutarch,  35 
Prodinger,   189,  207 
Protagoras,  31  f. 

Rickert,  iii  f. 
Romanticists,   loo 
Rousseau,  42 
Royce,    17 

Schelling,  51  f,  54,  55,  57,  97 
Schiller,  41,  49,  51,  52,  55,  68,  70, 

97,    100,    107,    109,    III,    179, 

192,  206  ff. 
Schleiermacher,   97 
Schopenhauer,  71 
Scott,   Colin  A.,  70,   142,   183,   191 
Shakespeare,    100 
Socrates,    31,    97,    169,    176,    201, 

211,  215,  217 
Sophocles,  47,   100,   103,   104,   154, 

163,    198,   208,   2i6,   237 


Spencer,  Herbert,  173,  198,  206 
Spinoza,  76,  97 
Stein,  Ludwig,  173 
Stoics,  76,  192,  217 
Stumpf,  Karl,   128 

Tacitus,   15 
Thucydides,  15,  104 

Vaihinger,  97  f. 
Vergil,  15,  109 

Westermarck,  n8,  164,  165 
Wiese,  11 

Wilamowitz,  55,  104 
Willmann,  37,  58,  74,  228,  235 
Winckelmann,  42,  50 
Windelband,   rii 
Wolf,  10  f,  38,  53,  55 
Wundt,  95,  145 

Xenophon,  156 

Ziegler,  42 
Zielinski,  35,  49,  218 


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